Chapter 3

Cells and Tissues

Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College

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 Part I: Cells

 Cells are the structural units of all living things

 The human body has 50 to 100 trillion cells

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 Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life

 The Cell Theory

1. A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of
living organisms
2. The activity of an organism depends on the collective
activities of its cells
3. According to the principle of complementarity, the
biochemical activities of cells are dictated by their
structure (anatomy) which determines their function
(physiology)
4. Continuity of life has a cellular basis

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 Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life

 Most cells are composed of four elements:

1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen
3. Oxygen
4. Nitrogen
 Cells are about 60% water

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 Anatomy of a Generalized Cell

 In general, a cell has three main regions or parts:

1. Nucleus
2. Cytoplasm
3. Plasma membrane

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Figure 3.1a Anatomy of the generalized animal cell nucleus.

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Plasma
membrane
(a) Generalized animal cell

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 The Nucleus

 Control center of the cell

 Contains genetic material known as
deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA
 DNA is needed for building proteins
 DNA is necessary for cell reproduction
 Three regions:
1. Nuclear envelope (membrane)
2. Nucleolus
3. Chromatin

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Figure 3.1b Anatomy of the generalized animal cell nucleus.

Nuclear envelope
Chromatin
Nucleus
Nucleolus

Nuclear
pores

(b) Nucleus
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 The Nucleus

 Nuclear envelope (membrane)

 Consists of a double membrane that bounds the
nucleus
 Contains nuclear pores that allow for exchange of
material with the rest of the cell
 Encloses the jellylike fluid called the nucleoplasm

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 The Nucleus

 Nucleolus
 Nucleus contains one or more dark-staining nucleoli
 Sites of ribosome assembly
 Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm through nuclear
pores to serve as the site of protein synthesis

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 The Nucleus

 Chromatin
 Composed of DNA wound around histones (proteins)
 Scattered throughout the nucleus and present when
the cell is not dividing
 Condenses to form dense, rodlike bodies called
chromosomes when the cell divides

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 The Plasma Membrane

 Transparent barrier for cell contents

 Contains cell contents
 Separates cell contents from surrounding
environment

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 The Plasma Membrane

 Fluid mosaic model is constructed of:

 Two layers of phospholipids arranged “tail to tail”
 Cholesterol and proteins scattered among the
phospholipids
 Sugar groups may be attached to the phospholipids,
forming glycolipids

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Figure 3.2 Structure of the plasma membrane.

Extracellular fluid Glycoprotein Glycolipid

(watery environment)
Cholesterol

Sugar group

Polar heads of
phospholipid
molecules

Bimolecular
lipid layer
containing
proteins
Channel

Nonpolar tails of Proteins Filaments of

phospholipid
molecules cytoskeleton Cytoplasm
(watery environment)

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© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 The Plasma Membrane

 Phospholipid arrangement in the plasma

membrane
 Hydrophilic (“water loving”) polar “heads” are oriented
on the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane
 Hydrophobic (“water fearing”) nonpolar “tails” form the
center (interior) of the membrane
 This interior makes the plasma membrane relatively
impermeable to most water-soluble molecules

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 The Plasma Membrane

 Role of proteins
 Responsible for specialized membrane functions:
 Enzymes
 Receptors for hormones or other chemical messengers
 Transport as channels or carriers

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 The Plasma Membrane

 Role of sugars
 Glycoproteins are branched sugars attached to
proteins that abut the extracellular space
 Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky, sugar-rich area on the
cell’s surface

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 The Plasma Membrane

 Cell membrane junctions

 Cells are bound together in three ways:
1. Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act as an adhesive or
cellular glue
2. Wavy contours of the membranes of adjacent cells fit
together in a tongue-and-groove fashion
3. Special cell membrane junctions are formed, which
vary structurally depending on their roles

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 The Plasma Membrane

 Main types of cell junctions

 Tight junctions
 Impermeable junctions
 Bind cells together into leakproof sheets
 Plasma membranes fuse like a zipper to prevent
substances from passing through extracellular space
between cells

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 The Plasma Membrane

 Main types of cell junctions (continued)

 Desmosomes
 Anchoring junctions, like rivets, that prevent cells from
being pulled apart as a result of mechanical stress
 Created by buttonlike thickenings of adjacent plasma
membranes

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 The Plasma Membrane

 Main types of cell junctions (continued)

 Gap junctions (communicating junctions)
 Allow communication between cells
 Hollow cylinders of proteins (connexons) span the width
of the abutting membranes
 Molecules can travel directly from one cell to the next
through these channels

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Figure 3.3 Cell junctions.

Microvilli Tight
(impermeable)
junction

Desmosome
(anchoring
junction)

Plasma
membranes of
adjacent cells

Connexon

Underlying Extracellular Gap

basement space between (communicating)
membrane cells junction
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 The Cytoplasm

 The cellular material outside the nucleus and

inside the plasma membrane
 Site of most cellular activities
 Includes cytosol, inclusions, and organelles

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 The Cytoplasm

 Three major component of the cytoplasm

1. Cytosol: Fluid that suspends other elements and
contains nutrients and electrolytes
2. Inclusions: Chemical substances, such as stored
nutrients or cell products, that float in the cytosol
3. Organelles: Metabolic machinery of the cell that
perform functions for the cell
 Many are membrane-bound, allowing for
compartmentalization of their functions

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Figure 3.4 Structure of the generalized cell.

Chromatin Nuclear envelope

Nucleolus Nucleus

Plasma
Smooth endoplasmic membrane
reticulum

Cytosol

Lysosome

Mitochondrion
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Centrioles
Ribosomes

Golgi apparatus

Secretion being released

Microtubule from cell by exocytosis
Peroxisome

Intermediate
filaments
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 The Cytoplasm

 Mitochondria
 “Powerhouses” of the cell
 Mitochondrial wall consists of a double membrane with
cristae on the inner membrane
 Carry out reactions in which oxygen is used to break
down food into ATP molecules

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 The Cytoplasm

 Ribosomes
 Made of protein and ribosomal RNA
 Sites of protein synthesis in the cell
 Found at two locations:
 Free in the cytoplasm
 As part of the rough endoplasmic reticulum

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 The Cytoplasm

 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

 Fluid-filled tunnels (or canals) that carry substances
within the cell
 Continuous with the nuclear membrane
 Two types:
 Rough ER
 Smooth ER

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 The Cytoplasm

 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (continued)

 Rough endoplasmic reticulum
 Studded with ribosomes
 Synthesizes proteins
 Transport vesicles move proteins within cell
 Abundant in cells that make and export proteins

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Figure 3.5 Synthesis and export of a protein by the rough ER. Slide 1

Ribosome
mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome,
Rough ER it migrates into the rough ER tunnel system.

2
1 3 2 In the tunnel, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains may be
attached to the protein (forming a glycoprotein).
Protein

3 The protein is packaged in a tiny

membranous sac called a transport vesicle.
Transport 4
vesicle buds off
4 The transport vesicle buds from the rough ER
and travels to the Golgi apparatus for further
processing.

Protein inside
transport vesicle

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Figure 3.5 Synthesis and export of a protein by the rough ER. Slide 2

Ribosome
mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome,
Rough ER it migrates into the rough ER tunnel system.

Protein

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Figure 3.5 Synthesis and export of a protein by the rough ER. Slide 3

Ribosome
mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome,
Rough ER it migrates into the rough ER tunnel system.

2
1 2 In the tunnel, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains may be
attached to the protein (forming a glycoprotein).
Protein

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Figure 3.5 Synthesis and export of a protein by the rough ER. Slide 4

Ribosome
mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome,
Rough ER it migrates into the rough ER tunnel system.

2
1 3 2 In the tunnel, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains may be
attached to the protein (forming a glycoprotein).
Protein

3 The protein is packaged in a tiny

membranous sac called a transport vesicle.
Transport
vesicle buds off

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Figure 3.5 Synthesis and export of a protein by the rough ER. Slide 5

Ribosome
mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome,
Rough ER it migrates into the rough ER tunnel system.

2
1 3 2 In the tunnel, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains may be
attached to the protein (forming a glycoprotein).
Protein

3 The protein is packaged in a tiny

membranous sac called a transport vesicle.
Transport 4
vesicle buds off
4 The transport vesicle buds from the rough ER
and travels to the Golgi apparatus for further
processing.

Protein inside
transport vesicle

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 The Cytoplasm

 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (continued)

 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
 Lacks ribosomes
 Functions in lipid metabolism
 Detoxification of drugs and pesticides

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 The Cytoplasm

 Golgi apparatus
 Appears as a stack of flattened membranes
associated with tiny vesicles
 Modifies and packages proteins arriving from the
rough ER via transport vesicles
 Produces different types of packages
 Secretory vesicles (pathway 1)
 In-house proteins and lipids (pathway 2)
 Lysosomes (pathway 3)

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Figure 3.6 Role of the Golgi apparatus in packaging the products of the rough ER.

Rough ER Tunnels Proteins in tunnels

Membrane Lysosome fuses with

ingested substances.
Transport
vesicle

Golgi vesicle containing

digestive enzymes
becomes a lysosome.
Pathway 3

Pathway 2 Golgi vesicle containing

Golgi membrane components
apparatus fuses with the plasma
Secretory vesicles
Pathway 1 membrane and is
Proteins incorporated into it.
Golgi vesicle containing
proteins to be secreted
becomes a secretory Plasma membrane
Secretion by
vesicle. exocytosis
Extracellular fluid

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 The Cytoplasm

 Lysosomes
 Membranous “bags” that contain digestive enzymes
 Enzymes can digest worn-out or nonusable cell
structures
 House phagocytes that dispose of bacteria and cell
debris

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 The Cytoplasm

 Peroxisomes
 Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
 Detoxify harmful substances such as alcohol and
formaldehyde
 Break down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals)
 Free radicals are converted to hydrogen peroxide and
then to water
 Replicate by pinching in half or budding from the ER

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 The Cytoplasm

 Cytoskeleton
 Network of protein structures that extend throughout
the cytoplasm
 Provides the cell with an internal framework that
determines cell shape, supports organelles, and
provides the machinery for intracellular transport
 Three different types of elements form the
cytoskeleton:
1. Microfilaments (largest)
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microtubules (smallest)

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Figure 3.7 Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.

(a) Microfilaments (b) Intermediate filaments (c) Microtubules

Tubulin subunits
Fibrous subunits
Actin subunit

7 nm 10 nm 25 nm

Microfilaments form the blue Intermediate filaments form Microtubules appear as gold
batlike network. the purple network surrounding networks surrounding the cells’
the pink nucleus. pink nuclei.

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 The Cytoplasm

 Centrioles
 Rod-shaped bodies made of nine triplets of
microtubules
 Generate microtubules
 Direct the formation of mitotic spindle during cell
division

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Table 3.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure and Function (1 of 5)

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Table 3.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure and Function (2 of 5)

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Table 3.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure and Function (3 of 5)

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Table 3.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure and Function (4 of 5)

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Table 3.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure and Function (5 of 5)

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 Cell Extensions

 Surface extensions found in some cells

 Cilia move materials across the cell surface
 Located in the respiratory system to move mucus
 Flagella propel the cell
 The only flagellated cell in the human body is sperm
 Microvilli are tiny, fingerlike extensions of the plasma
membrane
 Increase surface area for absorption

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Figure 3.8g Cell diversity.

Nucleus Flagellum

Sperm
(g) Cell of reproduction

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 Cell Diversity

 The human body houses over 200 different cell

types
 Cells vary in size, shape, and function
 Cells vary in length from 1/12,000 of an inch to over
1 yard (nerve cells)
 Cell shape reflects its specialized function

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 Cell Diversity

 Cells that connect body parts

 Fibroblast
 Secretes cable-like fibers
 Erythrocyte (red blood cell)
 Carries oxygen in the bloodstream

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Figure 3.8a Cell diversity.

Fibroblasts Rough ER and

Golgi apparatus
No organelles
Secreted
fibers

Nucleus
Erythrocytes
(a) Cells that connect body parts

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 Cell Diversity

 Cells that cover and line body organs

 Epithelial cell
 Packs together in sheets
 Intermediate fibers resist tearing during rubbing or
pulling

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Figure 3.8b Cell diversity.

Epithelial Nucleus
cells
Intermediate
filaments

(b) Cells that cover and line body organs

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 Cell Diversity

 Cells that move organs and body parts

 Skeletal muscle and smooth muscle cells
 Contractile filaments allow cells to shorten forcefully

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Figure 3.8c Cell diversity.

Skeletal
muscle cell Nuclei

Contractile
Smooth
filaments
muscle cells

(c) Cells that move organs and body parts

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 Cell Diversity

 Cell that stores nutrients

 Fat cells
 Lipid droplets stored in cytoplasm

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Figure 3.8d Cell diversity.

Fat cell Lipid droplet

Nucleus

(d) Cell that stores nutrients

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 Cell Diversity

 Cell that fights disease

 White blood cells, such as the macrophage (a
phagocytic cell)
 Digests infectious microorganisms

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Figure 3.8e Cell diversity.

Lysosomes
Macrophage

Pseudopods

(e) Cell that fights disease

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 Cell Diversity

 Cell that gathers information and controls body

functions
 Nerve cell (neuron)
 Receives and transmits messages to other body
structures

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Figure 3.8f Cell diversity.

Processes
Rough ER

Nerve cell

Nucleus

(f) Cell that gathers information and

controls body functions

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 Cell Diversity

 Cells of reproduction
 Oocyte (female)
 Largest cell in the body
 Divides to become an embryo upon fertilization
 Sperm (male)
 Built for swimming to the egg for fertilization
 Flagellum acts as a motile whip

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Figure 3.8g Cell diversity.

Nucleus Flagellum

Sperm
(g) Cell of reproduction

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