Human Anatomy and Physiology

Eleventh Edition

Chapter 03 Part C
Cells: The Living Units

PowerPoint® Lectures Slides prepared by Karen Dunbar Kareiva, Ivy Tech Community College

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Part 2 – Cytoplasm
• All cellular material that is located between the plasma membrane and the nucleus
– Composed of:
 Cytosol: gel-like solution made up of water and soluble molecules such as
proteins, salts, sugars, etc.
 Inclusions: insoluble molecules; vary with cell type (examples: glycogen
granules, pigments, lipid droplets, vacuoles, crystals)
 Organelles: metabolic machinery structures of cell; each with specialized
function; either membranous or nonmembranous

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3.7 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Membranous • Nonmembranous
– Mitochondria – Ribosomes
– Endoplasmic reticulum – Cytoskeleton
– Golgi apparatus – Centrioles
– Peroxisomes
– Lysosomes

Membranes allow compartmentalization, which is crucial to cell functioning

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Mitochondria
• Called the “power plant” of cells because they produce most of cell’s energy molecules
(ATP) via aerobic (oxygen-requiring) cellular respiration

• Enclosed by double membranes; inner membrane has many folds, called cristae
– Cristae are embedded with membrane proteins that play a role in cellular
respiration

• Mitochondria contain their own DNA, RNA, and ribosomes

• Resemble bacteria; capable of same type of cell division bacteria use, called fission

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Mitochondrion

Figure 3.14 Mitochondrion.

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Ribosomes
• Nonmembranous organelles that are site of protein synthesis

• Made up of protein and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

• Two switchable forms found in cell:

– Free ribosomes: free floating; site of synthesis of soluble proteins that function in
cytosol or other organelles
– Membrane-bound ribosomes: attached to membrane of endoplasmic reticulum
(ER); site of synthesis of proteins to be incorporated into membranes or
lysosomes, or exported from cell

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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (1 of 3)
• Consists of series of parallel, interconnected cisterns—flattened membranous tubes that
enclose fluid-filled interiors

• ER is continuous with outer nuclear membrane

• Two varieties:
– Rough ER
– Smooth ER

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The Endoplasmic Reticulum

Figure 3.15 The endoplasmic reticulum.

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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (2 of 3)
• Rough ER
– External surface appears rough because it is studded with attached ribosomes
 Site of synthesis of proteins that will be secreted from cell
 Site of synthesis of many plasma membrane proteins and phospholipids
– Proteins enter cisterns as they are synthesized and are modified as they wind
through fluid-filled tubes
– Final protein is enclosed in vesicle and sent to Golgi apparatus for further
processing

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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (3 of 3)
• Smooth ER
– Network of looped tubules continuous with rough ER
– Enzymes found in its plasma membrane (integral proteins) function in:
 Lipid metabolism; cholesterol and steroid-based hormone synthesis; making
lipids for lipoproteins
 Absorption, synthesis, and transport of fats
 Detoxification of certain chemicals (drugs, pesticides, etc.)
 Converting of glycogen to free glucose
 Storage and release of calcium
– Sarcoplasmic reticulum is specialized smooth ER found in skeletal and
cardiac muscle cells

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Golgi Apparatus (1 of 3)
• Stacked and flattened membranous cistern sacs

• Modifies, concentrates, and packages proteins and lipids received from rough ER

• Three steps are involved:

1. Transport vesicles from ER fuse with cis (inner) face of Golgi
2. Proteins or lipids taken inside are further modified, tagged, sorted, and packaged
3. Golgi is “traffic director,” controlling which of three pathways final products will
take as new transport vesicles pinch off trans (outer) face

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Golgi Apparatus (2 of 3)

Figure 3.16 Golgi apparatus.

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The Sequence of Events from Protein
Synthesis on the Rough ER to the Final
Distribution of those Proteins (1 of 4)

Figure 3.17 Processing and distribution of newly synthesized proteins.

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Peroxisomes
• Membranous sacs containing powerful detoxifying substances that neutralize toxins
– Free radicals: toxic, highly reactive molecules that are natural by-products of
cellular metabolism; can cause havoc to cell if not detoxified
– Two main detoxifiers: oxidase uses oxygen to convert toxins to hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2), which is itself toxic; however, peroxisome also contains catalase, which
converts H2O2 to harmless water
• Peroxisomes also play a role in breakdown and synthesis of fatty acids

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Lysosomes
• Spherical membranous bags containing digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases)
– Considered “safe” sites because they isolate potentially harmful intracellular
digestion from rest of cell
• Digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins
• Degrade nonfunctional organelles
• Metabolic functions: break down and release glycogen; break down and release Ca2+
from bone
• Intracellular release in injured causes cells to digest themselves (autolysis)

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Cytoskeleton (1 of 5)
• Elaborate network of rods that run throughout cytosol
• Hundreds of different kinds of proteins link rods to other cell structures
• Also act as cell’s “bones, ligaments, and muscle” by playing a role in movement of cell
components
• Three types:
– Microfilaments
– Intermediate filaments
– Microtubules

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Centrosome and Centrioles
• Centrosome, which is located near the nucleus, means “cell center”

• It is a microtubule organizing center, consisting of a granular matrix and centrioles—a

pair of barrel-shaped microtubular organelles that lie at right angles to each other

• Newly assembled microtubules radiate from centrosome to rest of cell

– Some microtubules aid in cell division, and some form cytoskeletal track system

• Centrioles form the basis of cilia and flagella

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3.8 Cellular Extensions
• Certain cells have structures extending from the cell surface:
– Cilia and flagella aid in the movement of the cell or of materials across the surface
of the cell
– Microvilli are fingerlike projections that extend from the surface of the cell to
increase surface area

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Cilia and Flagella (1 of 2)
• Cilia are whiplike, motile extensions on surfaces of certain cells (such as respiratory
cells)
– Thousands of cilia work together in sweeping motion to move substances
(example: mucus) across cell surfaces in one direction

• Flagella are longer extensions that propel the whole cell (example: tail of sperm)

• Both structures are made up of microtubules synthesized by centrioles that are called
basal bodies because they form the base of each cilium and flagellum

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Structure of a Cilium

Figure 3.22 Structure of a cilium.

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Ciliary Function

Figure 3.23 Ciliary function.

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Microvilli (1 of 2)
• Minute, fingerlike extensions of plasma membrane that project from surface of select
cells (example: intestinal and kidney tubule cells)

• Used to increase surface area for absorption

• Have a core of actin microfilaments that is used for stiffening of projections

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Microvilli (2 of 2)

Figure 3.24 Microvilli.

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Part 3 – Nucleus
• Largest organelle; contains the genetic library of blueprints for synthesis of nearly all
cellular proteins
– Responds to signals that dictate the kinds and amounts of proteins that need to be
synthesized

• Most cells are uninucleate (one nucleus), but skeletal muscle, certain bone cells, and
some liver cells are multinucleate (many nuclei)
– Red blood cells are anucleate (no nucleus)

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3.9 Structure of the Nucleus
• The nucleus has three main structures:
– Nuclear envelope
– Nucleoli
– Chromatin

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The Nucleus (1 of 2)

Figure 3.25a The nucleus.

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The Nuclear Envelope
• Double-membrane barrier that encloses the jelly-like fluid, the nucleoplasm
– Outer layer is continuous with rough ER and, like the rough ER, is studded with
ribosomes
– Inner layer, called nuclear lamina, is a network mesh of proteins that maintains
nuclear shape and acts as scaffolding for DNA

• Nuclear pores allow substances to pass into and out of nucleus; they are guarded by
the nuclear pore complex, which regulates transport of specific large molecules

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Nucleoli
• Dark-staining spherical bodies within nucleus that are involved in ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
synthesis and ribosome subunit assembly

• Associated with nucleolar organizer regions that contain the DNA that codes for rRNA

• Usually one or two per cell

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Chromatin
• Consists of 30% threadlike strands of DNA, 60% histone proteins, and 10% RNA

• Arranged in fundamental units called nucleosomes, which consist of DNA wrapped

around histones
– Chemical alterations of histones have an effect on DNA and therefore can help
regulate gene expression

• Chromosomes are condensed chromatin

– Condensed state helps protect fragile chromatin threads during cell division

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