Clinical psychologists in their office

settings often treat people with

psychological problems one at a time by
trying to change thought patterns,
perceptions, or behavior. This is often
called the
“medical model”
the term “Community Psychology” was first used, and it signaled new roles and
opportunities for psychologists by extending the reach of services to those who had
been under-represented, focusing on prevention rather than just treatment of
psychological problems, and by actively involving community members in the change
process
the 1965 Swampscott Conference in
the US
Over the past five decades, the field of Community
Psychology has matured with recurring themes of
prevention, social justice, and an
ecological
attempts to eliminate deficits and
problems by focusing exclusively on
the individuals.
First-order change
Such changes get at the source of the problem and
provide more enduring solutions for the entire
community.
second-order change,
perspective which looks t how oppressive social systems
preserve classism, sexism, racism, homophobia, and other forms
of discrimination and domination that perpetuate social injustice
critical psychology
Ecological means that there are multiple levels or layers of issues
that need to be considered, including the individual, family,
neighborhood, community, and policies at the national level.
ecological perspective
indicates that everything is connected, so changing
one aspect of a setting or environment will have
many ripple effects.
“interdependence” James Kelly
(2006)
indicates that behavior adaptive in
one setting may not be adaptive in
other settings.
“adaptation” James Kelly (2006)
appreciates the views and norms of groups from different ethnic
or racial backgrounds, as well as those of different genders,
sexual orientations, and levels of abilities or disabilities.
Respect for Diversity
Involving community groups and community members in an
egalitarian partnership and collaboration is one means of enabling
people to reestablish power and control over the obstacles or barriers
they confront.
Active Citizen Participation
Community members are seen as resources who provide unique points
of view about the community and the institutional barriers that might
need to be overcome in social justice interventions. All partners are
involved equally in the research process in what is called
community-based participatory
research.
community psychologists base advocacy and social change on data
that are generated from research and apply a number of evaluation
tools to conceptualize and understand these complex ecological
issues.
Grounding in Research and
Evaluation
it is important to recognize that issues such as addiction and
homelessness require expertise from many perspectives with
professionals from a diverse array of fields.
Interdisciplinary Collaboration
 which describes our need for a
supportive network of people on
which we can depend.
sense of community
defined as the process by which people and
communities who have historically not had control
over their lives become masters of their own fate.
Empowerment
Community psychologists have made valuable contributions at local,
state, national, and international levels by collaborating with
community-based organizations and serving as senior policy
advisors.
Policy
combination of physical, psychological, and social health, including
attainment of personal goals and well-being. Community Psychology
applies this concept to also include groups of people, and communities
—in a sense, collective wellness.
Promoting Wellness
SUMMING UP
This chapter has reviewed the key features of the Community Psychology field,
including its emphasis on prevention, its social justice orientation, and its shift to a
more ecological perspective. The case studies presented in this chapter illustrate ways
in which community psychologists have engaged in systemic and structural changes
toward social justice.
Students who read the chapters of this textbook will learn how we can mount community-based
research and practices that emphasize fair and equitable allocation of resources and opportunities.
This social justice perspective of Community Psychology recognizes inequalities that often exist in
our society. To deal with them, our field works toward providing greater access to resources and
decision making, particularly for communities that have been marginalized and oppressed.
CHAPTER 2
Protests and demonstrations, Civil
Rights movement
1960s
deinstitutionalization of mental
patients
1961
Community Mental Health Centers
Act, Community Mental Health
movement
1963 President John F. Kennedy
the first decade (1965-1975)
first clinical-community doctoral
programs in the US at DePaul
University (Ed Zolik, 1966)
 free-standing doctoral programs at
the University of Texas at Austin (Ira
Iscoe, 1966)
The Primary Mental Health Project identified children in the primary
grades (K-3) showing some initial trouble adjusting to school and
provided help through the school year from paraprofessional child
associates.
Primary Mental Health Project at the
University of Rochester (Emory
Cowen, 1975)
The Lodge provided an alternative to traditional psychiatric care
by preparing groups of hospitalized mental patients in a shared
housing environment for simultaneous release into the community.
 Community Lodge project (George Fairweather)
at a Veteran’s Administration psychiatric hospital
Division 27 (Community Psychology)
of the APA (1966)
Ecological perspective (James Kelly,
1966)
 The Journal of Community Psychology and the
American Journal of Community Psychology were
both first published in 1973.
was an opportunity to bring together the key figures in this field
during the first 10 years, and provide informal opportunities to
examine the field’s conceptual independence from Clinical
Psychology.
Austin Conference
 the second
decade (1975-
1985)
This conference provided an opportunity for like-minded community
psychologists and students to get together informally to discuss
new developments, new training programs, and new research.
first Midwest Ecological Community
Psychology Conference 1978
Society for Community Research
and Action (SCRA)
 first Biennial Conference on
Community Research and Action
“soul searching” and “dueling
addresses”
two new Community Psychology
textbooks by Heller and Monahan
and Rappaport.
growth outside of US and Canada
the third decade
(1985-1995)
In 1988, there was a major conference in Chicago, IL trying to
better define the theories and methods used by community
psychologists (Tolan, Keys, Chertok, & Jason, 1990).
20 YEARS OLD Talks about long-term legacy of the field more
“dueling addresses” new textbook refining definitions of
theories and methods addressing issues in implementation
 the fourth
decade (1995-
2005)
 targets persons who are both
homeless and seriously mentally ill.
“housing first” Sam Tsembris (1995)
was hosted at Loyola University in Chicago in June of 2002 (Jason
et al., 2004), and it focused on the refinement of the theories
and methodologies that can guide participatory research.
2nd Chicago conference on community research
June 2002
 In 2004 solid financial security
SCRA acquisition of the American Journal of
Community Psychology
the fifth decade
to the present
European community psychology association was formed
first “international conference on community psychology” 2006 in San Juan Puerto
Rico.
“trailblazing” women in community psychology contributions to the development of
the field
SUMMING UP
This chapter has reviewed the last 50-plus years in which the field of Community
Psychology has developed after its start in 1965 at the Swampscott Conference. With
a focus on prevention, ecology, and social justice, the field has offered society new
ways of thinking about how we might best solve our social and community problems.
The chapter has documented key events that have occurred, including
organization changes, key publications and conferences, and
international developments. The field has had some “growing pains,”
but now appears to be well-established and mature.
CHAPTER 3
seek to improve community well-being through a
cycle of collaborative planning, action, and research
in partnership with local community members.
Community psychologists
(which stands for Trustfulness, Reflexivity, Intersectionality, and
Positionality) as the core methodological skills acquired by
community psychologists in their training as well as their basic
values.
TRIP model
pursue training in other academic fields or have lived experiences
as a community advocate. They do not take the traditional route
of pursuing formal graduate training in Community Psychology.
Non-traditional community
psychologists
Academic community psychologists often have faculty appointments and teach at the
collegiate level and/or engage in community-based participatory research or
evaluation work. Higher education settings also include research or evaluation centers
or institutes and student support services units that focus on the health and academic
success of students.
Academic Settings
 include non-profit organizations, consulting,
government, health care, or for profit organizations.
Practice Settings
Local or national organizations that focus on a specific cause. They
invest their income back into the organization to further their cause
as opposed to distributing the earnings to shareholders, leaders or
members. T
Non-profit Organizations
Community psychologists may work as independent consultants or
employees at small, medium, or large consulting firms that provide
advice and support to other organizations looking to make decisions or
change something within their organization.
Consulting and Research Firms
A legislative, executive, or judiciary department, agency, or commission that
establishes and enforces laws and regulations and provides basic infrastructure,
health, education, public safety, and commerce/trade to support its citizenry.
Community psychologists work in local municipalities, county, state, and the federal
government.
Government Positions
An organization that provides health care or
related services (e.g., health-focused research).
Health Care Organizations
Community psychologists can be found in just about every setting you can imagine
within the educational sector. We work in public and private daycare centers, pre-school,
primary and secondary schools (pre-K through 12th grade), school district research and
assessment/evaluation offices, tutoring centers, afterschool enrichment programs and
prevention programs, colleges and universities, and more.
Educational Sector Opportunities
Behavioral Scientist in the Research and Evaluation
Branch, Division of Violence Prevention, National
Center for Injury Control and Prevention, CDC
Theresa L. Armstead
 Health Scientist Administrator in the Prevention
Research Branch of the National Institute on Drug
Abuse, National Institutes of Health (NIH).
Richard A. Jenkins
Senior Researcher at the American
Institutes for Research
Manolya Tanyu
SUMMING UP
Community psychologists apply various Community Psychology practice competencies in
their job roles. The two main job tracks within Community Psychology are academia and
practice, and career paths of community psychologists can be traditional or non-
traditional. Community psychologists work in various settings such as non-profit
organizations, consulting, government, health care, for profit, and academic settings.
Community psychologists find jobs through networking, responding
to postings on email listserv and online job postings, and can also co-
create jobs with organizations they respect and work with on
community projects.
CHAPTER 4
Experienced International Community Psychology practitioners
often report that their international work creates opportunities for
reflection and self-discovery, and helps them to better understand
context (Harvey & Mihaylov, 2017).
 the world is becoming more interconnected via
communications technology, travel, immigration,
and trade.
globalization,
is the act of an invading culture establishing political and economic
control over an indigenous people. We need to do all that is possible
to not support Colonialism when working internationally.
colonialism
International Community Psychology is not different in kind from
domestic Community Psychology, but it does differ in scope, logistics,
open-mindedness, power dynamics, expressiveness, and sensitivity
(SLOPES).
is the “way things are done around
here” (Shweder, 1990).
culture
Therefore, the main challenge of research and practice of
International Community Psychology is to work through the
discomforts and disorientation. This is reflected in the proverb, “A
bad day for the ego is a good day for the soul.”
using one’s own culture as the normative standard to judge another
culture. When working in another country, one is a guest and to
prejudge a different culture limits our understanding of context.
ethnocentrism
meaning that the international community psychologist
is required to more deeply examine context to
understand why things are the way they are.
systems perspective
are often existing where the power is located, and
we need to do all we can to think about how these
affect the people we are working with.
Imperialism, capitalism, and
colonialism
refers to a person working with underprivileged,
disadvantaged populations and indicates that he or
she has solutions to the community’s problems.
Heroism
A barrier to doing Community
Psychology work is
finding collaborators
Another obvious barrier to doing
Community Psychology work is
not speaking the local language.
Language Barriers and
Communication
One of the ways that community psychologists
work to promote social change is through
public policy
 Deeply Understanding Context and Change
Pinsky’s observation suggests that cultural change
requires two fundamental attributes:
knowing what is possible, and that the ability and
speed of cultural change is also a part of the
culture.
is not only working with our collaborators and participants; it also applies to the field
of Community Psychology itself. And we stated earlier, International Community
Psychology lends itself to exposing one’s competence (or need to develop more
thereof) as a fundamental benefit of International Community Psychology work.
Developing Cultural Competency
Cultural competence
Our field is an applied field; learning how to bring
about social change in a radically different cultural
context requires a lot of exploration.
The experience of working below the surface can inform community
psychologists of their own deficiencies and areas for improvement.
Working below the surface can remind you of your goals in the work.
It teaches
pragmaticism
at its simplest, is the attribute of being teachable and
accepting that one has much more to learn—so much
so that one is not really sure what one does not know.
Humility,
According to Perkins (2019), Community Psychology
is represented least in countries where it is needed
the most.
According to Steve Herbert (2001), complex problems invariably
require complex and difficult solutions. Community psychologists who
foster such “brave spaces” can awaken liberation knowledge and
practices anywhere they work.
Culture and context is the water in which we International
Community Psychology fish swim. This view is that culture is not a
“thing”—it is a process that influences how we see others and how
others see us (Geertz, 1973).
Experienced International Community Psychology practitioners report
that their international work creates opportunities for creativity,
reflection, and self-discovery, as well as striving toward new visions of
human life that could not be accomplished in one’s native setting
International Community Psychology “guests” may have widely
varying influences on public policy—from being welcomed as an
“outside expert” to being viewed as a “foreign intruder.”
In many parts of Eastern Europe, the English word “community”
evokes something negatively associated with life under
repressive communist regimes that ended in 1989-1991.
Doing Community Psychology means creating a relatively safe space to speak up and
share experiences and feelings. Working in international settings is all about having the
ability to listen and acknowledge the capacities of others to solve their problems.
However, it is important to not allow those with power, representing the status quo, to
impose their values on communities (Prilleltensky, 1994).
To be successful, it is first important to understand the culture and
context in which members of the community operate, engage in the
process of making sense of the problem, and collectively explore
solutions
SUMMING UP
International work is rewarding and challenging. Regardless of whether working “at
home” or internationally, the principles are the same: we cannot ignore injustices just
because they occur far away from home; besides violating community psychologists’
core values, all injustices—including asylum seekers fleeing from war and armed
violence, enforced poverty, and sexual slavery—will eventually affect us at home too.
We must consider the global context to address the root causes of local social problems.
For every complex problem, there is no simple, easy, or right solution. According to
Steve Herbert (2001), complex problems invariably require complex and difficult
solutions. Community psychologists who foster such “brave spaces” can awaken
liberation knowledge and practices anywhere they work.
Culture and context is the water in which we International Community Psychology fish
swim. This view is that culture is not a “thing”—it is a process that influences how we see
others and how others see us (Geertz, 1973). International Community Psychology work
can reveal strengths in us and in our international collaborators that may not have been
discovered otherwise. Taking a risk by being a fish in different waters can accomplish this.
CHAPTER 5
Theories allows/enables us to
describe, predict, explain
was developed by Barker (1968) to understand the relationship between individual behaviors
and varying characteristics of the physical environment. A behavior setting is considered to be
a place, a time, and a standing pattern of behavior. The main finding of this research was that
settings generally have rules that cause any person within the same setting to act similarly;
that people are interchangeable and you would still get the same behavior patterns.
Behavior setting theory
was developed by James Kelly (1966) who was one of the founders of the field of
Community Psychology. The purpose of his theory, as shown in Table 1 below, is to
provide a framework for understanding the structure and function of community. This
theory assists in learning how the characteristics of the environment of the community
can play a central role in the ways people interact and relate to each other.
ecological theory
The systematic process of using and developing
materials and resources that impact community
growth and development.
Cycling of Resources
Refers to the fact that communities are in a
constant process of change, and this process causes
changing requirements for adaptation.
Succession
was first described by the community psychologist Sarason (1974). This theory was meant to capture the
feeling people experience when they perceive themselves as having an interdependent connection with a
broader community outside themselves. More specifically, psychological sense of community is: “the
feeling one is part of a larger dependable and stable structure” (p. 157). McMillan and Chavis (1986)
defined sense of community as a feeling that members have of belonging; members feel that they matter
to one another and the group. T
sense of community
Community psychologists measure
sense of community by assessing:
1) membership, 2) influence, 3) integration and
fulfillment of needs, and 4) shared emotional
connection.
involves clear boundaries regarding
who is in and who is out of the
specific community.
Membership
refers to the ability one feels one has to impact the
broader community-level and individual-level norms
that guide the practices of the community.
Influence
 refer to feeling connected to a network that holds
shared values, that exchanges resources, and meets
needs.
Integration and fulfillment of needs
refers to participation in the celebrations of others,
and participation in specified rituals or ceremonies.
Shared emotional connection
helps to understand how people adapt to their social environment and how contexts
adapt to people. Social climate taps three main dimensions of how people perceive: 1)
how a setting organizes their perceptions of social relationships, 2) how they are being
supported in their personal development, and 3) how the setting handles the
maintenance of norms and supports change processes.
social climate theory
Theories and measures need to be rigorously tested so
that they can be improved, as witnessed by Leipoldt,
Kayed, Harder, Grietens, and Rimehaug (2017).
is based within a more critical perspective which
acknowledges the role of power and the ongoing
battle for resources.
Liberation Psychology (or psicología
de la liberación)
can be thought of as a tool for acquiring knowledge and transforming
oppressive realities involving a conscious integration of theory and
practice to make theory more grounded in reality (Montero & Sonn,
2009).
Praxis
 is a philosophy of praxis emphasizing that knowledge is not created
unless acquired through a method of mediated social discourse. In
other words, we develop knowledge about the world and
simultaneously work to bring about change.
Dialectics
SUMMING UP
Ultimately, the hope is for the encouragement of a rethinking of
problems “with and from, the oppressed; with a commitment to unveil
and characterize conditions of oppression and exploitation suffered by
large sectors of the population” (Montero & Sonn, 2009; p. 31).
Theories are used in Community Psychology to ensure we are addressing the
community dynamics in all the ways needed to be most effective in promoting a social
justice agenda. Community Psychology represents an innovative perspective focused
on understanding how environments shape and are shaped by people’s lives.
This requires theoretical frameworks that help us better understand
community settings and physical contexts rather than more traditional
approaches that only try to change the individuals experiencing a
problem, such as through individual therapy or medication.
In fact, individuals from around the world are drawn to the ideas of Community
Psychology because it has suggested ways to respond to the social issues and needs
of marginalized populations struggling with colonization, racism, and oppression in
North America, Latin America, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand (Reich, et al.,
2017).
Community Psychology is embedded in a deep understanding of community context.
Our theories help us to more clearly critically analyze the social context and
historical context within which we need to consider the allocation and distribution of
resources, as well as the assumptions that have shaped the world we live in.
CHAPTER 6
The Belmont Report (1978) outlined basic ethical
principles and applications for research. The three
major ethical principles are
Respect for Persons, Beneficence,
and Justice
is the deliberate sharing of research findings to
groups and communities that would benefit from
said findings.
dissemination
 is the adoption of evidence-based interventions with the goal of better serving the
specific population. It is most helpful to develop a professional network in order to see
consultation and advice regarding these complex issues that are being encountered in
analyzing social problems as well as implementing community-based interventions.
Implementation
This standard recognizes the importance of the population’s voice(s) in
developing and executing a research plan that has the greatest
likelihood of improving the population’s well-being and minimizing
harm. This principle is one of the core values of Community Psychology,
community-based participatory
research.
is the study on the individual, group,
setting, community, or societal
level?
Unit of Analysis
 is the study made up of adults, individual meeting
criteria, organizations, schools, towns, or some
other group?
Population of Interest
how do we get members of the
population of interest to participate
in the study?
Sample Recruitment
how does information get collected?
Data Collection
is the study conducted at a single time point (Cross-
Sectional) or at multiple observations over time per
unit of analysis (Longitudinal)?
Time
is the study observational (with no intervention)
vs. experimental (with intervention)?
Design
does the study have a control group
or is there no control group?
Control
 does the study have enough
participants for the research to
result in credible evidence?
Power
does the study use a qualitative,
quantitative, or mixed methods
approach?
Measurement and Data Structure
are very useful in the early stages of defining the topic of interest
and selecting measures. This type of research usually utilizes
relatively small sample sizes (less than 30) to allow an in-depth
inquiry per individual.
Qualitative methods
Many analytic approaches are used in qualitative
research. Four common methods are ethnography,
phenomenology, grounded theory, and content analysis.
which has its roots in anthropology and cultural
studies, seeks to understand the culture or ties of a
group or community from an insider’s perspective.
Ethnography,
focuses on the individual and is directed to examine a person’s narrative to capture
their perceptions and lived experiences. The researcher is often thought of as an
“indirect” participant due to the coding and interpretation processes involved because
the goal is to expose these perceptions and experiences as unfiltered as possible.
Phenomenology
includes an array of techniques for investigating material which may
be text, photographs, video, audio, etc. The objective is to use a
replicable, standardized process that reveals meaningful insights and
patterns.
Content analysis
This is a participatory, qualitative research method
where individuals tell “their story” through
photographs
Photo Voice
involve being able to count or quantify something. Of
course, you have to be able to define the “something”
but quantitative methods can help with that as well.
is there an intervention that the
sample will experience?
Observational or experimental
is the measurement a “photograph” capturing one
moment in time or is it over time, capable of
capturing change?
Cross-sectional or longitudinal
does the research include a control
group? This can be very important
for credibility
Controlled
are participants randomized to either control or experimental
conditions? If not randomized, the research is defined as “quasi-
experimental” and if randomized, it is a true experiment
Random assignment
since community psychology is interested in ecological
context, clustering often occurs naturally in the data structure
—think of students in a school clustered within classes.
Single level or multilevel
uses both qualitative and quantitative methods to capture this scope within the same study or project.
In essence, there are many important strategies provided by both qualitative and quantitative research
in helping us better understand the transactions between persons and community-based structures.
Mixed methods provide ways to stay true to Community Psychology’s values by helping to amplify the
voices within the lives of unheard and historically silenced communities.
which is a method for statistically summarizing the
findings of multiple studies to quantify an average effect
and identify possible predictors of variability of outcomes
Meta analysis
is a method that can be useful in identifying and measuring visual influences
on a map. For example, the presence of “food deserts” (i.e., areas without
access to affordable, quality food) among neighborhoods can be both visually
and quantitatively understood by using mapping with analytic capabilities
Geographical information systems
(GIS)
studies provide insight on how relationships may influence attitudes and behaviors. Let’s assume
Joey ends up primarily socializing with a group where most members use alcohol. We then learn
that Joey begins using alcohol. Did the group influence Joey to begin using alcohol or did Joey join
the group to be able to drink with others and not be negatively judged? This question of why youth
take on risky behaviors is important to know for the development of interventions and policy
Social network
SUMMING UP
community psychologists feel that effective research can utilize a multitude of designs and methods
(Jason & Glenwick, 2012). One possible framework for conceptualizing methods maps the relationship
between the degree of structure and the purpose of the research. The most tightly controlled
experiments are focused on testing an intervention’s effect. While unstructured investigations are
unlikely to lead to definite conclusions, they are, instead, an exploration of how things operate in the
world.
Research is a powerful tool that helps us better define phenomena,
measure it, make predictions about it, develop theories to explain it
and put our knowledge to use for the betterment of our world.
Community psychologists are trained to use research to understand
what might be accounting for certain community problems like
homelessness, as well as to evaluate whether particular interventions
are effective.
The ecological framework allows community psychologists to
broaden the evaluation to include how the intervention affected
a community’s commitment, openness, and readiness for change
Community psychologists might have similar goals as community organizers, but their
training in research and their ecological perspective provide them unique contributions
to bringing about social justice. Ethics and research are interconnected—as good
research should ethically generate evidence and evidence should guide ethical action.
Clearly, the commitment of community psychologists is always “first do no
harm” and that ineffective and resource wasteful action should be stopped.
There are a variety of ecological research methods that can help point the way
to bringing about social justice and more equitable distribution of resources.