BASIC POWER SYSTEM AND ELECTRICAL MACHINES (EE350)

SEPTEMBER 2024
LECTURE 4

Lecturer: Ms.Sobrina Mohamad Sobri

Email: sobrina@unimy.edu.my
Section of Computer Engineering
 LECTURE 4:
POWER GENERATION SYSTEM
Electricity is generated at power
plants and transmitted to
different
substrations from where it will be
distributed to individual
customers
Introduction

Now that we are familiar with the principal machines, transformers, and other power
devices, we are in a position to see how they are used in a large electrical system.

Such a system comprises all the apparatus used in the generation, transmission, and
distribution of electric energy, starting from the generating station and ending up in
the most remote summer home in the country.
Preference for Electricity
- Energy is vital for all living-beings on earth.
- Modern life-style has further increased its importance, since a faster life means
faster transport, faster communication, and faster manufacturing processes.
- All these lead to an increase in energy required for all those modern systems.
- It simply means that Electrical energy is the most popular form of energy,
whether we require it
1. in the usable thermal form (= heating applications),
2. in mechanical form (= electrical motor applications in Industries),
3. for lighting purposes (= illumination systems), or
4. for transportation systems.
Following are the main reasons for its popularity:
1. Cleaner environments for user
2. Higher efficiency
3. Better controllability
4. Easier bulk-power, long-distance transportation of power using overhead
transmission or
underground cables
5. Most versatile devices of energy conversions from Electrical to other forms are
available for different purposes, such as thermal, illumination, mechanical, sound,
chemical, etc.
Comparison of Sources of Power
While selecting a method of generating electricity, following factors are taken into
account for
purposes of comparison:
(a) Initial cost
(b) Running Cost
(c) Limitations
(d) (1) perpetuity, (2) efficiency, (3) reliability, (4) cleanliness and (5) simplicity.
• It is naturally desirable that the source must have perpetuity (= be of endless
duration), high conversion efficiency, and reliability (in terms of availability in
appropriate quantity).
• The energy conversion must be through a cleaner process (specially from the view-
points of toxicity, pollution or any other hazardous side effects).
• Further, a simpler overall system is always preferred with regards to
maintenance/repairs problems and is supposed to be more reliable.
Sources for Generation of Electricity
Following types of resources are available for generating electrical energy
Conventional methods
(a) Thermal: Thermal energy (from fossil fuels) or Nuclear Energy used for producing steam
for turbines which drive the alternators (= rotating a.c. generators).
(b) Hydro-electric: Potential of water stored at higher altitudes is utilized as it is passed through
water-turbines which drive the alternators.
Non-conventional methods
(c) Wind power: High velocities of wind (in some areas) are utilized in driving
wind turbines coupled to alternators. Wind power has a main advantage of
having zero production cost. The cost of the equipment and the limit of
generating-unit-rating is suitable for a particular location (= geographically)
are the important constraints.
This method has exclusive advantages of being pollution free and renewable.

(d) Fuel cells: These are devices which enable direct conversion of energy,
chemically, into electrical form. This is an up-coming technology and has a
special merit of being pollution-free and noise-free. It is yet to become
popular for bulk-power generation.

(e) Photo voltaic cells: These directly convert solar energy into electrical
energy through a chemical action taking place in solar cells. These operate
based on the photo-voltaic effect, which develops an emf on absorption of
ionizing radiation from Sun.
Brief Aspects of Electrical Energy Systems

Utility and Consumers

At generating stations, power is generated at the best locations. Load-centres are

generally away from these. Generation-units and Loads are connected by transmission
systems. Thus, the energy system is divided into two main parts.
(a) Utility (including sources and transmission network) and,
(b) Consumers (who utilize the electrical energy)
Why is the three- phase a. c. system most popular?

• It is well known that a.c. generation is simpler (than d.c. generation through electrical
machines because of absence of commutators in a.c. machines).
• Changing over from a.c. to d.c. is very easy these days due to the rectifiers of
sufficiently high power ratings, so that a wide range of d.c.
• There is a Golden compromise. It has resulted into popularity of the three-phase a. c.
systems over the entire time period. Now it has almost become a standard practice for
all purposes.
Cost of Generation

Cost of generation for one unit of electrical energy depends on the method of
generation, formulae worked to assess its running cost under the specified
conditions, and the cost of transmission line loss to transport power up to the
load.
Classifications of Power Transmission

(a) Using underground cables or using overhead transmission lines.

(b) Extra High Voltage A.C.-versus-Extra High Voltage D.C. transmission systems.
Conventional Sources of Electrical Energy
• Thermal (coal, gas, nuclear) and hydro-generations are the main conventional
methods of generation of Electrical Energy.
• These enjoy the advantages of reaching perfections in technologies for these
processes.
These suffer from the disadvantages listed below:
1. The fuels are likely to be depleted in near future, forcing us to conserve them
and find alternative resources.
2. Toxic, hazardous fumes and residues pollute the environment.
3. Overall conversion efficiency is poor.
4. Generally, these are located at remote places with respect to main load
centres, increasing the transmission costs and reducing the system efficiency.
5. Maintenance costs are high. Out of these, only two such types will be dealt
here, which have a steam turbine working as the prime mover. While remaining
two use Internal Combustion Engines (I.C. engines) or Gas turbine as the prime
mover, and these will not be dealt with, in this Introductory treatment.
Thermal Generating Stations

• The hydraulic resources of most modern countries are already fully developed.
Consequently, we have to rely on thermal and nuclear stations to supply the growing
need for electrical energy.
• Thermal generating stations produce electricity from the heat released by the
combustion of coal, oil, or natural gas.
• Thermal stations are usually located near a river or lake because large quantities of
cooling water are needed to condense the steam as it exhausts from the turbines.
The efficiency of thermal generating stations is always low because of the inherent low
efficiency of the turbines. The maximum efficiency of any machine that converts heat
energy into mechanical energy is given by the equation
η = (1 - T2/T1) 100
where
η = efficiency of the machine [%]
T1 = temperature of the gas entering the turbine [K]
T2 = temperature of the gas leaving the turbine [K]

Due to other losses, some of the most efficient steam turbines have efficiencies of 45%.
This means that 65% of the thermal energy is lost during the thermal-to-mechanical
conversion process.
The enormous loss of heat and how to dispose of it represents one of the major aspects
of a thermal generating station.
Steam Power Stations (Coal-fired)

Schematic Diagram
of a Coal-fired
Thermal Station
• India has rich stocks of coal as a natural resource. Chemical energy stored
within the coal is finally transformed into Electrical energy through the process
of these stations.
• Heat released by the combustion of coal produces steam in a boiler at
elevated temperatures and pressures.
• It is then passed through steam turbines, which drive the alternator, the
output of which is the electrical energy.
 Atmospheric pollution
Fuel (=coal) is cheap.
is considerable.

Less initial cost is

required

Coal may have to be transported over long

distances, in some cases, after some
years, and then
Merits of
It requires less space. the energy cost may be quite high.
Coal-fired
Demerits
thermal
stations

The cost of generating

unit of electrical energy is
less.
Nuclear Power Stations

Schematic Diagram of a
Nuclear Power Station
indicating Main
Components
• Nuclear energy is available as a result of fission reaction.
• In a typical system, Uranium 235 is bombarded with neutrons and Heat energy is released.
• In chain-reaction, these release more neutrons, since more Uranium 235 atoms are fissioned.
• Speeds of Neutrons must be reduced to critical speeds for the chain reaction to take place.
• Moderators (= speed-reducing agents like graphite, heavy water,etc). are used for this
purpose.
• Nuclear fuel rods (of Uranium 235) must be embedded in speed reducing agents.
• Further, control rods (made of cadmium) are required since they are strong neutron
absorbers and help in finely regulating this reaction so that power control of the generator is
precisely obtainable.
• When control rods are pulled out and are away from fuel rods, intensity of chain reaction
increases, which increases the power output of the system. While if they are pushed in and
closer to the fuel rods, the power-output decreases. Thus, the electrical load demand on the
generator decides (automatically) the control-rod positions through a very sophisticated
control system.
Advantages of Nuclear Generation
1. Quantity of fuel required is small for generating a given amount of electrical
energy, compared to that with other fuels.
2. It is more reliable, cheaper for running cost, and is efficient when operated at
rated capacity.

Disadvantages
1. Fuel is expensive and not abundantly available everywhere.
2. It has high capital cost.
3. Maintenance charges are high.
4. Nuclear waste disposal is a problem.
Hydroelectric Generation

Schematic of a
typical
Hydroelectric
station
• In this method of generation, water from higher height is passed through
penstock as controlled in the valve-house, into the water turbine.
• Thus, potential energy of water stored at higher altitudes is first converted into
Kinetic energy.
• As the water reaches the turbine, it gains speed after losing the Potential energy.
• Kinetic energy of this speedy water drives the water turbine, which converts this
into mechanical output. It drives the coupled generator, which gives Electrical
energy output.
Available hydro power
The power that can be extracted from a waterfall depends upon its
height and rate of flow. The size and physical location of a hydropower
station depends, therefore, on these two factors. The available hydro
power can be calculated by the equation
P = 9.8 qh (1)
where
P = available water power [kW]
q = water rate of flow [m3/s]
h = head of water [m]
9.8 = coefficient to take care of units
Owing to friction losses in the water conduits, turbine casing, and the turbine itself, the
mechanical power output of the turbine is somewhat less than that calculated by Eq. 1.
However, the efficiency of large hydraulic turbines is between 90 and 94%.
The generator efficiency is even higher, ranging from 97 to 99%, depending on the size
of the generator.
Example 1
A large hydropower station has a head of 324 m and an average flow of 1370
m3/s. The reservoir of water behind the dams and dikes is composed of a series
of lakes covering an area of 6400 km2.
Calculate
a. The available hydraulic power
b. The number of days this power could be sustained if the level of the
impounded water were allowed to drop by 1 m (assume no precipitation or
evaporation and neglect water brought in by surrounding rivers and streams)
Solution
a. The available hydropower is
P =9.8 qh
= 9.8 x 1370 x 324
= 4 350 000 kW = 4350 MW

b. A drop of 1 m in the water level corresponds to 6400 × 10 6 m3 of water. Because the

flow is
1370 m3/s, the time for all this water to flow through the turbines is
t = 6400 x 106 /1370
= 4.67 x 106s
= 1298 h = 54 days
Non-Conventional Energy Sources
Considering the previously discussed thermal methods of conventional energy
generations, it is necessary to understand the non-conventional energy sources,
since they have two points in their favour.
(a) Non-polluting processes are used.
(b) Perpetuity and renewability of the main source (which is a natural
atmospheric resource) generally exists.
The non-conventional energy sources are further advantageous due to virtually zero
running cost, since wind energy or solar energy is the input-source of power.

However, they are disadvantageous due to high initial cost (per MW of installed
capacity) and due to uncertainty resulting out of weather changes.

For example, dense clouds (or night hours) lead to non-availability of solar energy.
Similarly, “still-air” condition means no possibility of wind power generation, and
during stormy weathers, wind turbines cannot be kept in operation (due to
dangerously high speeds they would attain if kept in operation).
Photo Voltaic Cells (P.V. Cells or SOLAR Cells)
When ionized solar radiation is incident on a semi-conductor diode, energy
conversion can take place with a voltage of 0.5 to 1 volt (d.c.) and a current
density of 20-40 mA/cm2, depending on the materials used and the conditions of
Sunlight. Area of these solar cells decides the current output. An array of large
number of such diodes (i.e. Solar cells) results into higher d.c. output voltage.

Since, the final form of electrical energy required is generally an alternating

current, it is realized from d.c. using inverters.
Photo Voltaic (or Solar Cell )
• Typical materials used for these cells are: material doped with boron, cadmium
sulphide, gallium_x0002_arsenide, etc.
• Their choice is mainly decided by conversion efficiency.
• Best material may lead to the efficiency being typically 15%.
• Since solar energy is available free of cost, this low-efficiency does not matter.
This method suffers from the disadvantages of having high initial cost and
uncertainty (since dependent on weather conditions) including non operative night
periods. Main advantages are:
(i) no running cost (however, replacements of components may be a botheration),
(ii) no pollution,
(iii) location can be near the load (hence transportation of power is not required over
long distances).
(iv) since natural source is involved, it is perpetual

Individual stations using solar cells are in operation with ratings of the order of 250-
1000 kW.
With manufacturing costs of semi-conductor devices going down and with the advent
of better and better quality of cells which will be available in future, this method of
generation has bright prospects.
Fuel Cells
Principle of Operation

• In Fuel cells, negative porous electrode is fed by hydrogen and the positive
porous electrode is fed by oxygen.
• Both the electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte. The porous electrodes are
made of such a conducting material that both the fuel (oxygen and hydrogen)
and the electrolyte can pass through them.
• Such a material for electrodes is nickel.
• The electrolyte is a solution of sulphuric acid or potassium hydroxide. The
electrodes have a catalyst (= platinum or sintered nickel) which break the fuel
compound into more reactive atoms.
Chemical Process (with Acidic Electrolyte)

At Negative Electrode : 2H2 —→ 4H+ + 4 e

These hydrogen ions enter the solution (=electrolyte) leaving behind
electrons which pass through external circuit to the positive electrode.
At Positive Electrode: O2 + 4H+ + 4 → 2H2O
Thus, the combination of Hydrogen and Oxygen results into water at the
positive electrode.
Water is the waste-product of the cell, which is harmless. The process is,
thus, pollution free. There is no source of energy required, since the
process is basically “chemical” in nature.
Fuel Cell
Array for Large outputs

A fuel cell has a d. c. output voltage typically of 1.23 volts at normal atmospheric
pressure and temperature. Raising pressure and temperature increases this voltage.
To realize large output parameters (= voltage, current, and hence power), an array of
a large number of fuel cells (connected in series as well as in parallel) is made.
Voltage levels of 100 to 1000 V and power levels in kilowatts can be realized.
High Lights

1. Pollution-free, noiseless.
2. No outside source of energy is required.
3. Efficient.
4. No restriction on location
(a) High initial cost. (b) Working life is short.
Wind Power
Background

Wind power has been in use for serving the mankind, since centuries through what has
been popularly known as “Wind-mills.” There is no “electrical” stage of energy in old-
styled uses where wind-velocity is directly used for performing the jobs such as wheat-
grinding, pumping water for irrigation, sailing vessels, etc.
It enjoys the advantages of being plentiful, inexhaustible, renewable and non-polluting,
over and above being cheap for running costs.
It suffers from disadvantages of being unreliable, and being economically un-viable for
large power generation.
In India, a large number of such units with small and medium power ratings (up to 100
kW) are already in operation mainly in coastal or hilly areas. With the modern system, it
is now preferred to have suitable power_x0002_control circuits on the output side of
wind-generators so that these can pump energy into low voltage lines of the grid over a
wide range of variation of wind speeds.
Wind-generation, Part-side-view to show a
a Schematic view typical
three bladed wind turbine
Basic Scheme

A large variety of wind-turbines naturally exist arising out of large variation in wind-
pattern all over and out of different manufacturers producing systems with different
designs.

Since the aim here is to understand the basic system, only one type of system is
presented here.

In Fig. above shows an arrangement wherein, a horizontal three-bladed system is shown

mounted on a tower. Through rotation transformation using gears to step up the speed
and to link the horizontal axis of turbine with vertical axis of generator.
Properties of the wind

The wind possesses energy by virtue of its mass and speed. For example, consider a cubic meter
of air moving at a speed of 10 m/s. Knowing that a cubic meter has a mass of about 1.2 kg, it
possesses a kinetic energy given by

Ek = 1/2 mv2
= 1/2 x 1.2 x 102 = 60 J

If the air is slowed down by a mechanical device of some kind (such as a wind turbine) the wind
will give up some of its kinetic energy. Consequently, the wind turbine will produce a mechanical
power output that can be used to drive an electric generator.

We can deduce that the inherent power of the wind is given by the approximate formula:
Pa = 0.6 v3

where
Pa = power per square meter facing the wind [W/m2]
v= speed of the wind [m/s]
Example 2

A 400 kW, 3-blade wind turbine is designed to deliver full power at a wind speed of 15 m/s.
The
blades have a length of 14 m and the rated speed of the turbine is 48 r/min.
Calculate
a. The area swept out by the turbine blades
b. The wind power available to drive the turbine
c. The ratio of the 400 kW output to the available wind power, in percent
d. The tip speed of the turbine blades
e. The ratio of the tip speed to wind speed
Solution
a. Area swept out by the turbine blades
A = πr2 = π × 142 = 616 m2

b. Available wind power per square meter

Pa = 0.6 v3 = 0.6 x 153 = 2025 W/m2

Wind power available to drive the turbine

P = PaA = 2025 × 616 = 1 247 400 W = 1247 kW

c.
generator output power / available wind power = 400 kW/ 1247 kW = 0.3208 = 32%

d. Circumference of turbine at the blade tips

C = 2 π r = 2 x π x 14m = 88 m
Tip speed = C x r/min = 88 x 48 = 4224 m/min
= 70.4 m/s

e. Tip speed/wind speed = 70.4/15 = 4.7