qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwerty

uiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasd
UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND TECHNOLOGY
fghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzx
TARKWA

cvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmq
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

wertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyui
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

opasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfg
hjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxc
vbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmq
wertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyui
KN
OW
L ED
GE , T
RU TH A N D E
X C EL LE
NC
E

opasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfg
LECTURE NOTES ON
hjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxc
POWER GENERATION AND SUPPLY
vbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmq (EL/RN 371)

wertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyui
Course Instructor:
opasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfg
JOSEPH CUDJOE ATTACHIE, PhD

hjklzxcvbnmrtyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbn
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
University of Mines and Technology
Tarkwa
mqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwert
January, 2023
yuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopas
dfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklz
JESUS IS LORD

xcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnm
qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwerty
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS PAGE

CHAPTER 1 GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER AND 1

GENERATING PLANTS

1.1 Introduction to Power Generation 1

1.2 Advantages of Electrical Energy 1
1.3 Comparison of Sources of Power 1
1.4 Sources of Energy 2
1.5 Generation of Electrical Power 7
1.6 Conventional Power Plants 8

CHAPTER 2 THERMAL POWER STATIONS 9

2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Line Diagram of Thermal Power Stations 9
2.3 Uses of Water in Coal Fired Thermal Power Station 13
2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Steam Power Plants 13
2.5 Selection of Site 13
2.6 Efficiency of Steam Plant 14

CHAPTER 3 HYDRO-ELECTRIC STATIONS (PLANTS) 15

3.1 Introduction 15
3.2 Classification of Hydro Dynamic Machines 16
3.3 Classification of Hydroelectric Plants 18
3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydro-electric Power Stations 20
3.5 Selection of Site for Hydroelectric Stations 21
3.6 Selection of a Prime Mover for a Hydro S tation 21
3.7 Calculation of Power Produced by a Hydro Plant 21
3.8 Capacity of Power Stations 22

CHAPTER 4 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 23

4.1 General Introduction 23

4.2 The Grid System 23
4.3 Advantages of the Grid System 24
4.4 Nature of Transmission and Distribution Systems 25
4.5 Transmission Systems 27
4.6 Electric Transmission Line Parameters 30
4.7 Power Substations 38
4.8 Distribution Systems 48

CHAPTER 5 LINE INSULATORS 54

5.1 Introduction 54
5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Suspension Insulators 58
5.3 Potential Distribution over the String of Suspension Insulators 58
5.4 String Efficiency 59
5.5 Improvement of String Efficiency 60

i
5.6 Characteristics of Line Insulators 61
5.7 Failure of Line Insulators 61
5.8 Testing of Insulators 62

CHAPTER 6 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM PLANNING 63

6.1 Introduction 63
6.2 Present Transmission System Planning Techniques 63
6.3 Models used in Transmission System Planning 66
6.4 Transmission System Planning in the Future 66

CHAPTER 7 POWER SYSTEM RELIABILITY 68

7.1 Introduction 68
7.2 Definition of Power System Reliability 69
7.3 Factors affecting Power System Reliability 70

REFERENCES 72

ii
 CHAPTER 1
GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER AND GENERATING PLANTS

1.1 Introduction to Power Generation

Energy is the basic necessity for the economic development of a country. In today’s modern world,
electrical energy has become a necessity of life. In other words, it has become part and parcel of
our life.

The electric energy demand of the world is continuously increasing, and most of the energy is
generated by conventional power plants, which remain the only cost-effective method for
generating large quantities of energy. Power plants utilize energy stored in the earth and convert it
to electrical energy that is distributed and used by customers. This process converts most of the
energy into heat, which increases the entropy of the earth. In this sense, power plants deplete the
earth’s energy supply. Efficient operation becomes increasingly important to conserve energy.
Typical energy sources used by power plants include fossil fuel (gas, oil, and coal), nuclear fuel
(uranium), geothermal energy (hot water, steam), and hydro energy (water falling through a head).

The most common method of generating energy is by means of electric machines generally called
generators or alternators. They either generate direct currents (d.c) or alternating currents (a.c). The
machines are mechanically coupled to prime-movers and convert mechanical energy into electrical.

The increasing use of this form of energy is due to the fact that, it can be converted into any form
easily and quickly. In nature, energy exists in different forms but electrical energy is the most
important form of energy.

1.2 Advantages of Electrical Energy

The popularity of electrical energy is due to the fact that all energies available in nature can be easily
converted into electrical energy and vice-versa. The other advantages of this form of energy over
other forms are:
(a) It is cheaper than all other forms of energy.
(b) It can be easily controlled. A simple switch can control huge amounts of electrical energy.
(c) It can be transmitted and distributed easily over long distances.
(d) It can be used to heat insulating materials, dielectrics and non-metals. This is not possible
in the case of any other form of energy.
(e) It has higher efficiency
(f) Most versatile devices of energy conversions from Electrical to other forms are available for
different purposes, such as thermal, illumination, mechanical, sound, chemical, etc.

1.3 Comparison of Sources of Power

While selecting a method of generating electricity, the following factors are taken into account for
purposes of comparison:
(a) Initial cost: For a given rating of a unit (in the minds of planners), investment must be
known. Naturally, the lower the initial cost, the better it is.
(b) Running cost: To produce a given amount of electrical energy, the cost of conversion process
(including proportional cost of maintenance/repairs of the system) has to be known.
(c) Limitations: Whether a particular resource is available, whether a unit size of required rating
is available from a single unit or from an array of large number of units, and whether' a
particular method of generation is techno-economically viable and is time-proven, are

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 1 -
 typical queries related to the limitations of the concerned method.
(d) i) perpetuity, ii) efficiency, iii) reliability, iv) cleanliness and v) simplicity.
It is naturally desirable that the source must have perpetuity i.e. be of endless duration),
high conversion efficiency, and reliability (in terms of availability in appropriate quantity).
The energy conversion must be through a cleaner process (specially from the view- points
of toxicity, pollution or any other hazardous side effects). Further, a simpler overall system
is always preferred with regards to maintenance/repairs problems and is supposed to be more
reliable.

1.4 Sources of Energy

The various sources of electrical energy are:

(a) Non-Conventional (or Primary Sources): These are the sources which are not very popular
and are not much used for the generation of electrical energy.

(b) Conventional (or Secondary Sources): These are very popular and used for the gene-
ration of electrical energy.

1.4.1 Non-Conventional Sources

(a) Solar Power (Photo Voltaic Cell)

The source of the solar energy is the sun. There are basically two methods involve in the generation
of the solar power.

In the first method, sun rays are concentrated over water tank placed at focal length of lens and the
water made to boil to produce steam to be used in steam turbines.
In the Second method, reflectors are used to concentrate sun rays to focal point and they (reflectors)
can be made to turn along with the sun so that sun energy can always be utilized producing steam.

Solar energy is one of the primary sources of energy. Sun radiates energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves which include heat and light. Solar energy can be used to make steam which,
in turn, runs steam turbine that operates a generator (Fig. 1.1).

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 2 -
 Solar Energy

Steam
Steam
Turbine

Generator

R Y B
Electric Energy
Fig. 1.1 A Sketch of Power Generation from the Sun

When ionized solar radiation is incident on a semi-conductor diode, energy conversion can take place
with a voltage of 0.5 to 1 volt (d.c.) and a current density of 20-40 mA/cm2, depending on the materials
used and the conditions of Sunlight. Area of these solar cells decides the current output. An array of
large number of such diodes (i.e. Solar cells) results into higher d.c. output voltage.

Since, the final form of electrical energy required is generally an alternating current, it is realized from
d.c. using inverters. In order to realize a few hundred kilowatts of power-rating, huge arrays are
accommodated in horizontal as well as vertical stacks, so that land area required is not too vast.
Electrically, they are connected in series and in parallel combinations of cells so that rated voltage and
current are realized.

Just to understand the principle of operation of solar cells, let a semi-conductor diode receive ionized
radiation from Sun, as in Fig. 1.2.

Fig.1.2 Photo Voltaic (Solar Cell)

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 3 -
Typical materials used for these cells are: material doped with boron, cadmium sulphide, gallium-
arsenide, etc. Their choice is mainly decided by conversion efficiency. Best material may lead to
the efficiency being typically 15%. Since solar energy is available free of cost, this low-efficiency does
not matter.

For the development of solar power, the greatest drawback is that, it depends on weather conditions
since it may not be available in required quantities due to cloudy weather or rainy season.
Furthermore, the sun energy is available only during day. Thus, the commercial development of
this energy on a large scale is not possible. Small scale projects can be successful, in which case,
the energy available during the day can be used to charge batteries (solar cells) which will ensure
continuous supply of power during the night.

Main advantages are: (i) no running cost (however, replacements of components may be a bother),
(ii) no pollution, (iii) location can be near the load (hence transportation of power is not required
over long distances) and (iv) since natural source is involved, it is perpetual.

Individual stations using solar cells are in operation with ratings of the order of 250 1000 kW.
With manufacturing costs of semi-conductor devices going down and with the advent of better and
better quality of cells, which will be available in future, this method of generation has bright
prospects.

The solar energy has poor reliability. Moreover, a solar generating plant will need a very large
space. However, in this method, cost incurred on fuel is negligible as it is freely available. Solar
cooker and solar cell are examples of use of solar energy.

(b) Wind Power (Wind-mills)

This type of power is generated when propulsive power of wind is used to drive multi-bladed
turbine wheel.

The use of wind as a source of power is not very extensive, but in certain parts of India where the
directions of wind remain constant for a sufficiently long period of the year and where high winds
are a common feature, it is a cheap and common source of power.

The wind energy is also free of cost but it can be used for generation of electrical energy only at
places where the wind pressure is high enough to run a "wind mill" (Fig. 1.2), which in turn, is
coupled to a generator. When the wind pressure is low, the plant has to be shut down.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 4 -
 Fig. 1.3 A Schematic Diagram of Wind-Mills to Generate Wind Power

The hollow blades of about 25 metre diameter are arranged on a tower. The air passes from the
hollow chimney to the hollow blade ends, and due to centrifugal force, the blades rotate. As the air
passes into the tower, it drives the wind turbine to which is coupled an alternator. The speed of the
wind may be of the order of 40 km/hour to 80 km/hour; and an output of the order of 100 kW can
be obtained.

(c) Tidal Power (Sea Waves)

There is a tremendous amount of energy in ocean tides and waves. They possess potential as well
as kinetic energy However, it is very difficult to harness this power for development of electrical
energy.

A small dam with larger gates is made across the mouth of the bay and low head turbines are used
for generation of electrical power. At the time of the tide, the gates are opened and then closed,
trapping some amount of water which is then allowed to pass through water turbine, When the tide
has receded, there will be small working head between the bay and the ocean. When tides are high,
water is stored; water is discharged when tides are low. The potential energy of the stored water can
be used to generate electrical energy.

(d) Geothermal Energy (Terrestrial heat)

This type of heat (thermal energy from hot springs) is generally not available under normal
circumstances. In most parts of the world the vast amount of heat in the earth’s interior is too deep
to be tapped. At places of fresh volcanic activity or in surface vents, the natural stream of water
flows deep into the earth meeting these high temperatures and causing it (water) to change into
steam, thus providing natural steam wells which in turn are used to run turbines. Also, at places of
fresh volcanic activities, water pipes are embedded in the earth to change them into steam.

The present utilization is about 500 MW and the total estimated capacity is about 2000 MW.
Because of the lower pressure and temperature, the efficiency is less than with fossil-fuelled plants,
but the capital costs are less and of course the fuel is free. Other basic types of geothermal energy
reservoirs are: hot water; hot dry rock; geo-pressured water, and the normal thermal gradient in the
earth’s crust.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 5 -
Electricity may be generated as already stated above, from hot-water wells by passing the water
under pressure through a heat exchanger where it causes the vaporization of a volatile liquid such
as Freon. The latter expands through a turbine.

The earth has a molten core. This heat can be used to generate electrical energy.

(e) Fuel Cells

Electricity is produced by the oxidation of a fuel, thus, converting chemical energy directly into
electrical energy. Such cells can be used to supply energy to pump sets in remote areas.

Principle of operation of fuel cells

In fuel cells, negative porous electrode is fed by hydrogen and the positive porous electrode is fed
by oxygen. Both the electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte. The porous electrodes are made of
such a conducting material that both the fuel (oxygen and hydrogen) and the electrolyte can pass
through them. Such a material for electrodes is nickel. The electrolyte is a solution of sulphuric acid
or potassium hydroxide. The electrodes have a catalyst (= platinum or sintered nickel), which
break the fuel compound into more reactive atoms.

Chemical Process (with Acidic Electrolyte)

At Negative Electrode: 2H2 4H+ + 4e

These hydrogen ions enter the solution (=electrolyte) leaving behind electrons which pass through
external circuit to the positive electrode.
At Positive Electrode: 02 + 4H+ + 4e 2H20
Thus, the combination of Hydrogen and Oxygen results into water at the positive electrode.
Water is the waste product of the cell, which is harmless. The process is, thus, pollution free. There
is no source of energy required, since the process is basically "chemical" in nature. The
schematic diagram of such a cell is shown in Fig. 1.4.

Fig. 1.4 Fuel Cell

1.4.2 Conventional Sources

Conventional sources are those which have been used for the generation of electrical energy for a
long time.
(a) Coal: Coal is used to make steam. Steam runs turbines which are coupled to a generator. Plants
using coal are known as steam power plants or simply thermal stations.
J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 6 -
 (b) Water: Water, in the rainy season, is stored in high dams. This water falls on water turbines.
Turbines move and run generators.
(c) Liquid fuels: Diesel power plants are used as "stand by" plants. Diesel (or petrol) engines run
generators. These plants have small size and are used when the regular supply is shut down.
(d) Nuclear: The fission of the uranium nucleus gives a large amount of energy which is used to
convert water into steam which is used to run steam turbines coupled to generators.

1.5 Generation of Electrical Power

Basic Principle: The basic principle of generation of power involves conversion of different
natural sources into electrical energy. The basic steps of generation (Fig. 1.5) are the fuel, prime
mover and generator.
(a) Fuel
Raw materials like solar energy, wind, water, coal, diesel, etc., are called fuel. The solar energy, wind
and water are used as such, whereas in the case of coal and diesel, their "calorific value" is first
converted into heat, which is utilised to make steam of water. The amount of heat, given by a fuel,
depends upon its calorific value. The amount of heat produced by complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel
is known as its "calorific value". The unit, in the case of solid fuels, is calories/kg and, in the case of
liquid fuels, it is calories/litre. The greater the calorific value of a fuel, the greater is the heat produced
by it.

The Table 1.1 gives the calorific values of a some fuels.

Table 1.1 Calorific Values of some Fuels

SN Fuel Calorific value, kcal/kg
1 Different types of coal 5000 to 8000
2 Diesel 10,000
3 Petrol 10,500

Fig. 1.5 Basic Steps of Generation

(b) Prime mover

The fuel, in its convertible form as (steam, etc.), runs a prime mover, i.e., turbine, wind mill,
diesel/petrol engine, etc.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 7 -
 (c) Generator

The third important component of power generation is the generator, which is coupled to the prime
mover and converts mechanical power, taken by the prime mover, into electrical power.

1.6 Conventional Power Plants

The important conventional power plants are:
(a) Steam power or thermal plants
(b) Hydro electric power or hydro plants
(c) Nuclear power plants
(d) Diesel power plants

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 8 -
 CHAPTER 2
THERMAL POWER STATIONS

2.1 Introduction

The generating stations which use solid fuels (such as coal) are known as Thermal Power Stations.
In other words, they employ steam (obtained from water) turbines which are coupled to generators
(alternators) for the generation of electrical power.

The design of steam power stations require wide experience since the subsequent operation and
maintenance are greatly affected by its design. The most efficient design consists of properly sized
components, designed to operate safely and conveniently along with it’s auxiliaries and controls. A
compact and a well arranged power station can be very efficient and at the same time a source of
pride and pleasure; while the power station with poor layout, inadequate and unsafe controls can
prove to be a loss to a supply undertaking. The satisfactory design consists of the following steps:
(a) Selection of the Site;
(b) Capacity of power station;
(c) Selection of boilers and it’s auxiliaries;
(d) Selection of turbines;
(e) Selection of condensing units;
(f) Design of cooling system;
(g) Selection of electrical generator;
(h) Design of control and instrumentation

2.2 Line Diagram of Thermal Power Stations

Fig. 2.1. represents the line diagram of the thermal generating station. The scheme of generation is
divided into two phases:

(a) Formation of steam in the boiler house; and

(b) Generation of electrical power in the generator room.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 9 -
 Chimney

Hot Air Air

Air Forced Draught
Preheater Fan

Flue Gases

Coal Boiler Economiser

Electrical
Power
Flue Gases

Ash Turbine
Super Heater Generator
Disposal
Dry Air
Flue Gases

Exhaust
To
Steam
Economiser

Condenser

Cooling Water

River

Fig. 2.1 Line Diagram of a Thermal Power Station

The steam is obtained from high pressure boilers. The fuel burnt in the boilers can be solid or liquid
or gaseous. The solid fuels normally used in boilers are bituminous coal, brown coal and peat.
Generally, bituminous coal is used having volatile matter from 8 to 33% and ash content 5 to 16%.
To increase the efficiency of the boiler, the coals are burnt in a powered form.

The liquid fuels in use are: fuel oil, crude oil, petrol and paraffin oil. Out of these, fuel oil is
generally used for firing the boilers; the other types of liquid fuels are of better quality and are
therefore used in internal combustion engines.

In the Boiler House, the fuel is burnt and the water is converted into high pressure steam which is
further superheated in a super-heater. The superheated steam is passed into the turbine to rotate the
turbine blades, thus it converts the heat energy into mechanical energy. The pressure of the steam
then decrease with it’s volume increasing.

After imparting energy to the turbine rotor, it (steam) passes out of the turbine blades into the
condenser. In the condenser, the cold water is circulated with the help of pump which condenses
the low pressure wet steam. This condensed water is further supplied to low pressure water heater
where the low pressure steam increases the temperature of this feed water; it is then again heated
in a high pressure heater where the high pressure steam is used for heating. The method of taking
out steam from turbines for feed water heating is called bleeding of turbines which increases the

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 10 -
overall efficiency of the boiler. The cold water used in the condenser becomes too hot as it comes
out of the condenser. For a better usage, it is cooled by means of cooling towers.

The turbine in the generation room acts as a prime mover of the alternator which generates electrical
energy. The alternator is connected through the circuit breaker to the bus bars then to the
transformers for onward transmission.

Basically, the main elements/components of a steam power plant (Fig. 2.1) are:

a. Coal/ash handling arrangement f. Steam turbine

b. Boiler g Condenser
c. Superheater h. Generator
d. Economiser i. Cooling arrangement
e. Preheater j. Water treatment arrangement

(a) Coal/ash handling arrangement

Coal from coal mines is transported to the site of the plant and is stored in a coal storage. From
the storage, the coal is sent to a “pulverizing" plant where it is pulverized, i.e., crashed into
powder form. This helps in its rapid combustion. When coal is burnt in the boiler, it is necessary
to remove the ash periodically for proper burning. Later on, the ash is disposed off.

(b) Boiler

In the boiler, the heat of combustion of coal is used to convert water into steam at high temperature
and pressure. Generally, two types of boilers are used;

(i) Fire tube boiler

In this boiler, hot gases circulate inside tubes which are surrounded by water. They are used in small
power plants.

(ii) Water tube boilers

As the name indicates, water flows in this boiler in tubes surrounded by hot gases. They are used in
large power plants.

(c) Superheater

The steam produced in the boiler is wet. So, it is passed through superheaters which give superheated
(above B.P.) and dry steam. This process increases steam's efficiency and avoids too much condensation.
Superheaters are of two types:

(i) Radiant Superheater: This is placed in a furnace between water walls. It receives heat from
the burning fuel through radiation. The temperature of this superheater, however, falls with
increased steam output, and, therefore, it is not very popular.

(ii) Convection superheater: This is placed in tubes and receives heat from hot gases through
convection. In this case, the temperature of the superheater increases with increased
steam output, and it is therefore, commonly used in modern plants.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 11 -
(d) Economiser/preheater

Before feeding to the boiler, water is preheated in economisers. The heat of hot gases is utilised
here, which, otherwise, would have been lost. It reduces the "work" in the boiler. An economiser
consists of parallel steel tubes in which the feed water flows while the flue gases are in the
surroundings.

(e) Air preheater

This equipment heats the atmospheric air supplied for coal burning. For this purpose also, heat of
the flue gases is utilized. The air from the atmosphere is drawn by forced draught fans. It increases
thermal efficiency.

(f) Steam turbine

Dry and superheated steam from super heater is made to strike the blades of a steam turbine.
Heat energy of the steam is converted into mechanical energy by the turbine. For this
purpose, a steam engine can also be utilised but, due to higher efficiency and other many
advantages, all modern plants utilise steam turbines.

The overall efficiency of the Thermal Station varies from 20 to 26% and the plant load factor varies
from 39% to 44% which however depends on plant capacity. Steam turbines may be of the
impulse type or reaction type.

Table 2.1. gives an idea of overall thermal efficiency and plant load factor for plants of different
capacities.

Table 2.1 Overall Thermal Efficiency and Plant Load Factor for Plants of different
Capacities

Installed Plant Capacity, Average Overall Thermal Average Plant Load

kW Efficiency, Factor,
% %

up to 1000 3.95 2.9

1001 to 10000 11.86 23.1
10001 to 50000 15.69 39.5
50,001 to 100000 24.02 40.1
Above 100000 26.53 44.5

(g) Condenser

After working on turbine blades, steam is sent to the condenser for condensation by cold water
circulation. The condensed steam (water) can be used again, as feed water to the boiler. Two types
of condensers are used:

(i) Jet condenser: In this condenser, steam and cooling water are mixed together. Thus, the
temperature of the steam going out of the condenser is the same as that of the water.

(ii) Surface condenser: This condenser consists of steel tubes through which cool water flows.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 12 -
 The steam exhausted from the turbine is made to move over these pipes. The hot steam
gives its heat to the water and is condensed.

(h) Generator

The turbine is coupled to the generator which converts mechanical energy of the turbine into
electrical energy.

(i) Cooling arrangement

The condenser condenses the steam and becomes hot itself. The hot condenser is cooled by
cooling towers. The cooled water is reutilised in the condenser (Fig. 2.1).
A river nearby can also be used (in place of cooling towers) to cool the condenser.

(j) Water treatment arrangement

Water fed to the boiler should be clean and free from impurities. Therefore, the water before
feeding to the boilers is passed through a water treatment plant, where it is filtered for its
suspended impurities and then it is softened by removing its temporary and permanent
hardness. Hard water leads to the formation of scales and other problems in the boilers.

2.3 Uses of Water in Coal Fired Thermal Power Station

In a coal fired thermal station, water performs the following distinct functions:
(1) It produces steam in the boiler
(2) It condenses steam in the condenser
(3) It is used to wash coal in order to reduce its ash content.

2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Steam Power Plants

Advantages
(a) The fuel (coal) used in steam power plants is cheaper as compared to nuclear and diesel
plants
(b) The initial cost is less
(c) The cost of generation and maintenance is also not very high
(d) It needs lesser space as compared to hydro stations.

Disadvantages
(a) The atmosphere is polluted as it gives out smoke and fumes- However. anti-pollution devices
can be installed.
(b) Running cost is higher as compared to hydro plants.

2.5 Selection of Site

(a) Plant should preferably be installed nearer to coal mines, otherwise, the transportation
facilities should be cheaply available.
(b) It needs huge amount of water for boiler/condenser and therefore, it should be located near
river site.
(c) Land should be cheap and further extension should be possible.
(d) It should be located near load centre to reduce the cost of transmission.
(e) The plant should be away from the population as it produces pollution.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 13 -
2.6 Efficiency of Steam Plant

The efficiency of steam plants is very low, about 30 %. The reason is the wastage of heat at various stages.
(i) About 9% heat energy is lost in the boiler.
(ii) About 59% heat is lost during the transfer of heat from turbine to condenser.
(iii) About 2% heat is lost in the generator.
Thus, only about 30% heat is utilized.
A steam plant has two forms of efficiencies:

(i) Thermal efficiency- This is the ratio of the heat energy supplied to the turbine to the heat
of combustion of coal.

Heat sup plied to the turbine

i.e. Thermal efficiency =
Heat of combustion of coal

(ii) Overall efficiency- This is the ratio of the heat equivalent of the electric output of the
generator, to the heat of combustion of coal.

Heat equivalent of electrical output

Overall efficiency =
Heat of combustion of coal

It must be noted that 2 kWh = 860 kCal.

Both efficiencies are about 28 to 32 percent.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 14 -
 CHAPTER 3
HYDRO-ELECTRIC STATIONS (PLANTS)

3.1 Introduction

The hydroelectric stations convert the energy stored in water into electric power by the use of water
turbines coupled with generators. The water stored at higher altitudes is allowed to impinge on the
blades through penstocks, thus the potential energy (difference of level called head) and kinetic
energy (energy due to motion) of water is first transformed into mechanical energy and then to
electrical energy. Hence the continuous availability of water throughout the year is an absolute
necessity for proper operation of hydro-electric stations. The analysis of availability of electric
power also includes the study of rainfall, run off and stream flow, available head and it’s limitations
and facilities for storage.

In view of the above stated considerations, it is clear that the location of such plants is possible only
in non-mountainous areas. Generally, such schemes have multipurpose i.e. they can be used for
power generation as well as for irrigation purposes.

Hydro plants use the cheapest fuel, i.e., water. As coal, uranium and diesel are in short supply,
hydro plants are, therefore, becoming popular. Water is collected in high dams which, on release,
strikes the blades of a turbine, thus converting P.E. of water into mechanical energy as said earlier
on. The generator, coupled to the turbine, converts mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical
energy.

The main components of a hydro plant includes; reservoir, dam, spill way, surge tank, pen stock,
water turbine, tail race and generator.

(a) Reservoir: Water is stored in a reservoir during the rainy season. It may be a natural lake or one
artificially constructed. It should have a large catchment area.

(b) Dam: The dam may be impounding or spill way type and creates water head. It may be constructed
of concrete, stone or earth depending upon requirement.
(c) Spillway: It acts as a safety valve during floods when the reservoir is full. Excess water is
discharged through a spillway. It is constructed on top of the dam with metal gates.

(d) Surge tank: It is a type of conservator tank. When the load on the turbine decreases, excess
water rushes back to the surge tank, and when the load on the turbine increases, additional
water from the surge tank flows into pen stocks.

(e) Pen stocks: Pen stocks are huge steel or concrete pipes, which connect the surge tank with the
turbine. In medium head plants, each unit has its own pen stock. In high head plants, a single
pen stock is used. Thickness of the pipes should be sufficient to withstand normal hydraulic
pressure as well as surges caused due to fluctuations. Various protection devices for pen
stocks are shown in Fig. 3.1.
(f) Water turbine: Water turbine is the prime mover which converts energy of falling water into
mechanical energy

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 15 -
 Fig.3.1 Various Protection Devices for Penstocks

3.2 Classification of Hydro Dynamic Machines

The hydrodynamic machines called the hydraulic turbines can be classified in the following two
ways:
(a) According to the type of flow of water;
(b) According to action on fluid.

a. Type of flow of water

Classification according to the type of flow of water is based on three axis:

(i) Axis along the shaft of the machine - The machines having flow of water along this axis
are called axial flow turbines;
(ii) Axis along the radius - The machines in which the water flows along the radius are called
radial flow turbines. Generally the turbines are inward flow turbines;
(iii) Axis along the tangential directions – The turbines using this type of flow are called
tangential flow turbines.
Illustration:

Hydraulic Turbine

Tangential flow Inward radial flow

Axial flow Mixed flow radial inlet
(Pelton Wheel) (Francis Turbine)
(Propeller and Kaplan axial outlet
Turbine) (Francis Turbine)

b. Action on fluid

According to action on fluid, the turbines can be divided into the following two categories:

(i) Impulse turbines - When the whole of the available pressure energy of the water is first
converted into kinetic energy and the water at atmospheric pressure impinges the blades of
the turbines, the turbine is called the impulse turbine. The impulse turbine mostly in use is
Pelton Wheel;

(ii) Reaction turbine - If part of the available pressure energy is converted into kinematic
energy in the guide apparatus before the water strikes the blades of the turbines, such type of

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 16 -
 turbines are know as reaction turbines. The pressure at all stages of the reaction turbine is
not atmospheric. The reaction turbines mostly used at present are Francis, Kaplan and the
Propeller type.

Three types of hydraulic (water) turbines are used. These may be of "impulse' or "reaction" type.
These are:

1) Pelton turbine( wheel)

It is the impulse turbine and is suitable for high heads. It consists of a rotor with "buckets" on the
periphery of the turbine (Fig. 3.2). i.e., consists of a bucket wheel rotor with adjustable flow nozzles.
It is used for heads of 184–1840 m or 600-6000 ft and;

Fig.3.2 Pelton Type of Wheel

2) Francis turbine
It is a reaction turbine and is suitable for medium heads. It consists of an outer ring of "stationary
blades" and an inner ring of "rotating blades" (Fig. 3.3). It is used for heads of 37 – 490 m (120
- 1600 ft) and is of the mixed flow type;

Fig.3.3 Francis Type of Wheel (Radial Flow)

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 17 -
3) Kaplan turbine
It is also a reaction turbine and is suitable for low heads. It is similar to the Francis turbine
with the difference that in the Kaplan turbine, water strikes axially whereas in the Francis
turbine, water strikes radially (Fig. 3.4). It is used for run of river and pondage stations with
heads of up to 61 m (200 ft). This type has an axial-flow rotor with variable pitch blades.

Fig.3.4 Kaplan Type of Turbine (axial flow)

3.3 Classification of Hydroelectric Plants

The hydroelectric power generation schemes generally require the construction of a dam. The dam
serves to store large volume of water or it may serve only to provide diversion or pondage. The
pondage refers to collection of water for a short period say a week; while the storage refers to
collection of water for months or years. The power house is located below the dam or at a distance
from it.

The classification of hydroelectric plants is based upon (Fig. 2.1):

(a) Available head

(b) Quantity of water available
(c) Nature of load

Fig. 2.1 Showing the Classification Overview of Hydro Power Plants

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 18 -
There are three main types of installations based on available head. These are classified as:
(a) Low head plants
(b) Medium head plants
(c) High head plants

(a) Low head plants

The layout of a hydro plant for low heads, (upto 50 m), shown in Fig. 3.5. The pen stocks used
are of large diameter and short length Kaplan turbines are used and the generators used are of low
speed.

Fig. 3.5 Layout of a Hydro Plant Low Head

a) Medium head plants

The layout of a hydro plant for medium heads (between 50 m to 350 m) is shown in Fig. 3.6. For
these plants, generally, the Francis turbine is used.

Fig. 3.6 Layout of Medium Head Plant

b) High head plants
The layout of a high head plant (more than 350 m) is shown in Fig. 3.7. In this case, a reservoir
and a dam become necessary. Due to high head, a small quantity of water is required for a given
output. The pen stocks required are of large length and small diameter. A surge tank is also
constructed as a protection to the pen stock as explained earlier. A pelton wheel, as prime
mover and generator of high speed, is used.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 19 -
 Fig. 3.7 Layout of High Head Plant

3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydro-electric Power Stations

The Advantages are as follows;

(a) The plant is simple in construction, robust and requires low maintenance;
(b) It can be put in the service instantly;
(c) It can respond to changing of loads without any difficulty;
(d) There are no stand-by losses i.e. no losses are incurred when at a standstill;
(e) The running, operation and maintenance cost are very small;
(f) No fuel is burnt;
(g) The efficiency of the plant does not decrease with time provided proper maintenance is carried
out;
(h) A single unit of very high output can be used;
(i) No smoke, no ash, no atmospheric pollution The plant is quite neat and clean;
(j) The water can be used for irrigation and other purpose after running the turbines;
(k) It needs water as fuel, which is cheaper and easily available.
(l) Due to the use of water as fuel, running charges are also small.
(m) Such a plant can be switched on instantly whereas a steam plant takes starting time.
(n) The lifetime of generating plants are substantially long.
(o) Reliability is much more than wind, solar or wave power due to its easy availability and
convertibility.

The Disadvantages of the hydro-electric stations are:

(a) The potential of hydro power depend on locations and if properly not selected may cause lots
of hostility and absurdity during operational stage of the power plant.
(b) The dams are very expensive to build. However, many dams are also used for flood control or
irrigation, so building costs can be shared.
(c) The capital cost of electrical instruments along with civil engineering works to be installed and
cost of laying transmission lines is generally high since it is built away from the load centre
(d) The impact on plant life due to the water quality and quantity downstream of hydro power
plants are reported.
(e) Due to increase in water temperature and insertion of excess nitrogen into water at spillways
health and migration of fish as well as other aquatic plants get effected.
(f) Due to the installation of reservoir in the flow paths the siltation rate get altered.
(g) Long dry seasons may affect the delivery of power.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 20 -
3.5 Selection of Site for Hydroelectric Stations

The following are the points to be considered before the site for the power station is finalized:-
(a) Sufficient quantity of water at a reasonable head should be available;
(b) It should be possible to construct an economical dam to store water at the selected site.
Although theoretically, it is possible to construct a dam at almost all places, yet preferably,
there should be high, strong mountains on the two sides;
(c) The site should allow for strong foundations with minimum cost;
(d) There should be no possibility of future sources of leakage of water;
(e) The reservoir to be constructed should have large catchment area (an area from which rain
flows into a particular river, lake, etc.), so that the water in it should never fall below the
minimum level;
(f) The selected site should easily be accessible;
(g) There should be the possibility of stream diversion during construction period;
(h) Local supplies of sand, gravel, etc. should be available.
(i) The land should be cheaply available.
(j) Such plants should be built in hilly areas, near river or canal so that water should be available in
sufficient quantity and at a good head.

3.6 Selection of a Prime Mover for a Hydro Station

Selection of turbine is done depending upon the head:
• Up to 50 m head - Kaplan turbine
• Up to 350 m head - Francis turbine
• Up to 1000 m head - Pelton turbine

3.7 Calculation of Power Produced by a Hydro Plant

The power (P) which can be produced by a hydro plant is given by

P= 8.5 x Q x H x  kilowatts (3.1)

where; Q= discharge of water m3/sec
H= water head in m
 = efficiency of plant.

Hydro plants are also classified according to the type of dam such as:
i) Solid gravity concrete dam
ii) Arch dam
iii) Buttress concrete dam
iv) Earthen dam
v) Rock fill dam

Though the location of the station at the centre of gravity is the best, yet sometimes it may not be
feasible or recommendable due to it’s nuisance it may pose to the public.

In practice, the following points should be considered in order to decide the location of the power
station:
1. The site has a large bearing on the erection and working of the station. The cost of the land
should be quite reasonable; the cost of the land will be high in the city area and low in the
rural areas;
J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 21 -
 2. The land should be such that acquisition of private property should be minimum, preferably
avoided;
3. Large quantity of cooling water should be available for the condensers etc. Approximately
560×103 kg of water is required for every 1 tonne of coal burnt. So, the site near a carnal or
river is the most suitable, otherwise cooling towers should be constructed, in which case the
same water is recycled again after cooling;
4. The fuel to be used in the power station should be cheap and available or enough facilities
for it’s transportation to the site should be available;
5. The site should be levelled and no excavations for minerals, etc, should be allowed;
6. The Soil should be such as to provide good and firm foundation to the building and the
plants;
7. The land should not be rocky so as to prevent blasting, etc;
8. The land should not be marshy so as to prevent pile foundations;
9. The site should not be surrounded by residential buildings so as to avoid nuisance of smoke,
noise, steam water vapours etc, for the inhabitants;
10. There should be enough level of development of industry in the surrounding areas of the
site;
11. The future extension of the power station should be possible;
12. Enough accommodation for the operational and maintenance for staff should be made
available at reasonable rates;
13. Facility for the disposal of ash should be available;
14. The chimney of the power station should not obstruct the flying of aeroplanes if the station
is near an airport;
15. If canal and river water is used, then the fishery industry, water works etc, should be borne
in mind or taken into consideration. The water must not be polluted case of war;
16. The design must be such that, the by-laws of the country and town planning should not be
infringed;
17. The site should be such as to serve the interests of national defence.

3.8 Capacity of Power Stations

The installed capacity of the power station is determined by:

(a) The present demand of power by the industry and other utilizing organization;
(b) The future demand and prospects of development of the Industry which can approximately be
obtained by projecting the increase in load demand in the past 10 years or so;
(c) Possibility of inter-connection of the power stations to the existing systems;
(d) Availability of water supply.-The scarcity of water at a particular place, plays definitely a
limiting part in the capacity of the stations.

Test question:
Describe the schematic arrangement of a thermal power station and explain the function of each
briefly.

Read on Nuclear Power Stations (Plants)

Consider the following:
The concepts of nuclear power stations; nuclear reactor fuel; schematic arrangement of nuclear
plants; advantages and disadvantages of nuclear plants; selection of site of nuclear plants;
classification of nuclear reactors; characteristics of an atomic power station.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 22 -
 CHAPTER 4

POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

4.1 General Introduction

An electric power system consists of three major parts:

i) Generation
ii) Transmission and
iii) Distribution.

After the generation of electrical energy, transmission is the most efficient method of transmitting
power over long distances.

Transmission system can be classified depending upon the level of voltage used for transmission.
as:
i) Primary transmission (275 kV and above),
ii) Secondary transmission (220 kV to 66 kV),

Similarly, distribution system can be further classified depending upon the voltage of distribution.
as:
i) Primary distribution (33 kV and above)
ii) Secondary distribution (11 kV/6.6 kV/3.3 kV)
iii) Tertiary distribution (400 V, 3 phase)

Although electrical power can be transmitted and distributed by either ac. or dc, but in practice 3-
phase 3 wire system is universally adopted for transmission of large blocks of power and 3 phase
4-wire ac system is usually adopted for distribution of electrical power. The distribution system
may be divided into feeders, distributors and service mains.

4.2 The Grid System

This refers to the nature of transmission and distribution system. It is the name given to that part of
a power system, which consists of the substations and transmission lines at various voltages.
Large amounts of power are transmitted from the generating stations to the load-centre substations
at higher voltage (e.g. 161 kV in Ghana; 400 kV and 275 kV in Britain).

The Network formed by these very high-voltage lines is sometimes referred to as super grid. Most
of the large and efficient stations feed through transformers directly into this network. This grid in
turn feeds a sub-transmission network at 33 kV in Ghana, 132 kV in Britain and 115 kV in U.S.A.

Some of the less efficient stations feed into this system which in turn supplies network which are
concerned with distribution to consumers in a given area.

In Britain, these networks operate at 33 kV, 11 kV or 6.6 kV equivalent to that in Ghana, and supply
the final consumer feeders at 415 V three phase giving 240 V per phase.

A typical part of a supply network is shown in Fig. 4.1.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 23 -
 Large high-efficiency station

G G G
  

161 kV
Generator T1 T2 T3 To Loads
transformers
T8
CB
To rest of
system

T9

CB T6 T7

Distribution
T4 T5 voltage

To Loads
Via (through)
lower voltage
network Load-efficiency Station
(local generator)
Fig. 4.1 A Typical Part of a Power System

4.3 Advantages of the Grid System

1. The whole county is linked by a common High – voltage (H.V) network;

2. Best use is made of large, highly efficient generating stations built upon the most
advantageous sites;
3. Load flow is under a centralized control enabling generating plant to be operated at its
highest efficiency.
4. Small and inefficient stations are eliminated;
5. Standby plant and spares are kept to a minimum;
6. Supply frequency and voltage can be standardized;
7. Loss of supply due to breakdown is minimized;
8. Electricity is more readily available to isolated communities.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 24 -
4.4 Nature of Transmission and Distribution Systems

Electrical energy is generated at generating stations. The generating stations are located in remote
area. Therefore the problem of making energy available at the door of every consumer arises. For
this purpose, conductors carrying energy are run from the station to consumers. This network of
conductors is known as the transmission and distribution.

By transmission, is normally implied, the bulk transfer of power by high voltage links between
main loads centres. That is it is the system of carrying bulk power from the power station to
substations. Distribution on the other hand, is mainly concerned with the conveyance of this power
to consumers by means of lower voltage networks.

The machines usually generate voltage in the range 11-25 kV which is increased by transformers
to the main transmission voltage. At substations, the connections between the various components
of the systems, such as lines and transformers, are made and the switching of these components
carries out.

Transmission networks deliver to wholesale outlets at 132 kV and above, sub transmission networks
deliver to retail outlets at voltages from 115 kV or 132 kV and distribution networks deliver to final
step-down transformers at voltages below 132 kV.

Electric power may be transmitted by two methods:

i) By overhead system or,

ii) By underground cables system-this being especially suited for densely populated areas,
though it is somewhat costlier than the first method.

In overhead system, power is conveyed by bare conductors of copper or aluminium, which are strung
between wooden or steel poles erected at convenient distances along a route. The bare copper or
aluminium wire is fixed to an insulator, which is itself fixed onto a cross-arm on the pole. The number
of cross-arms carried by a pole depends on the number of wires it has to carry. Line supports consists
of:
i) Pole structures and
ii) Towers.

Poles that are made of wood, reinforced concrete or steel are used up to 66 kV, whereas steel towers
are used for higher voltages. The underground system employs insulated cables, which may be
single, double or triple core etc.

4.4.1 General Electrical Layout of the Supply System

A typical layout of the system is shown in Fig. 4.1. Where CS represents the central station where
power is generated by 3-phase alternators at 6.6 kV or 11 kV or 13.2 kV or even 33 kV. The voltage
is then stepped up by suitable 3-phase transformers for transmission purposes. Taking the generated
voltage as 11 kV, the 3-phase transformers step it up to 132 kV as shown.

Primary or high-voltage transmission is carried out at 132 kV. The transmission voltage is to a very
large extent, determined by economic considerations. High voltage transmission requires
conductors of smaller cross-section, which result in economy of copper or aluminium. But at the
same time, cost of insulating the line and other expenses are increased. Hence the economical
voltage of transmission (or economical transmission voltage) is that for which the saving in copper
or aluminium is not offset:

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 25 -
 i) By the increased cost of insulating the line,
ii) By the increased sized of transmission line structures and
iii) By the increased size of generating stations and substations.

The 3-phase, 3-wire overhead high-voltage transmission line next terminates in step-down
transformers in a substation known as receiving station (RS) which usually lies at the out skirts of
a city because it is not safe to bring high-voltage overhead transmission lines into thickly-populated
areas. Here, the voltage is stepped down to 33 kV. It must be noted here that, for ensuring continuity
of service, transmission is always by duplicate lines.

From the receiving station, power is next transmitted at 33 kV by underground cables (and
occasionally by over-head lines) to various sub-stations (SS) located at various strategic points in
the city. This is known as secondary or low-voltage transmission. From here then begins the
primary and secondary distribution.

G Generator
CS

11/132 kV Step-up transformer

Primary
transmission Step-down transformer
132/33 kV
Secondary Receiving station (RS)
transmission
Step-down transformer
Substation

Primary
Distribution
3.3 kV
Distribution transformer
Secondary 440/230 V
Distribution

Consumers’s connections

Fig. 4.1 A Typical Layout of a Generating, Transmission and Distributing

Network of a Large System

At the sub-station, voltage is reduced from 33 kV to 3.3 kV (or 11 kV) 3-wire for primary
distribution. Consumers whose demands exceed 50 kVA are usually supplied from SS by special 3.3
kV feeders.

The secondary distribution is done at 400 V/230 V for which purpose voltage is reduced from 3.3
kV to 400 V at the distribution substations. Feeders radiating from distribution substation supply
power to distribution networks in their respective areas. If the distribution network happens to be at
a great distance from the substations then they are supplied from the secondary of distribution
transformers which are either pole-mounted or else housed (indoored) or outdoored at suitable points
of the distribution networks.

The most common system for secondary distribution is 400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire system. The
single-phase residential lighting load is connected between any one line and the neutral, whereas 3-
phase 400 V (or 415 V) motor load is connected across 3-phase line directly.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 26 -
It should be noted that, low- voltage distribution system is sub-divided into:

(i) Feeders
(ii) Distributors and
(iii) Service mains.
11 kV, (13.8 kV, 14.4 kV)

Step-up Transformer

Primary transmission
440 kV, 220 kV, 132 kV, 161 kV, etc. Grid stations
Very Large (3-phase, 3-wire)
consumers Sub stations

Large consumers Secondary transmission: 66 kV

Large consumers
(3-phase, 3-wire)
Sub stations

Primary distribution: 33 kV, 11 kV

Medium consumers (3-phase, 3-wire) Medium consumers
Sub stations

Small Secondary distribution 400 V/230 V

Small consumers
consumers (3-phase, 4-wire)

Fig .4.2 A Typical Transmission and Distribution System

4.5 Transmission Systems

4.5.1 Various Transmission systems

Though in practice 3-phase 3-wire ac system is universally used for transmission and 3-phase 4-wire
a.c. system is used for distribution of electric power, but for other purposes, other systems may also
be used. The various systems for power transmission are tabulated in Fig. 4.3.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 27 -
 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

DC System AC System

DC DC DC
2 wire 2 wire with 3wire
mid-pt earthed

Single phase Two phase Three phase

1 ph 1 ph 1 ph 2 ph 2 ph 3 ph 3 ph
2 wire 2 wire 3wire 3wire 4 wire 3 wire 4 wire
with
mid- pt
earthed

Fig. 4.3 Various Transmission Systems

N.B: In practice, the 3 phase 3 wire AC system is universally adopted for transmission.

4.5.2 High Voltage Transmission

Power stations are often situated at considerable distances from centres of power consumption. Coal-
fire stations are built near coal –fields whenever possible in order to reduce transport costs. Nuclear
stations are usually situated in remote areas and the location of hydroelectric stations is dependent
on the availability of an adequate head of water.

Thus, the distance between a power station and the nearest load centre may in some cases be in the
order of 160 km.

In most developing countries, the demand for electrical energy to supply domestic, commercial and
industrial loads is increasing. Ever increasing amounts of electrical energy therefore have to be
transmitted over considerable distances. In order to do this economically, transmission voltages have
to be increased every few years. Note that, transmission is always done at high voltages.

4.5.3 Advantages of Transmission at High Voltages

The advantages of transmission at high voltage are:

(a) It reduces the volume of the conductor material. In a 3-phase system,

Power, P= 3VICos 

where: V-line voltage; I -line current; Cos  -power factor.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 28 -
The line current,

I = P/3VCos and power loss W = 3I2R

If R is resistance per phase, R=l/A, then , the total power loss,

P 2 L
2
 P 
2
W =3I R = 3   .L / A =
 3VCos  V 2Cos 2  A

P 2 L
From this, the cross-sectional area, A=
WV 2Cos 2

A
L

Fig. 4.4

Volume of conductor

Assuming the conductor has cylindrical shape, then the volume (V) of a cylinder is given by the
formular,
V=area of base x length = AxL.
 P 2 L  3P 2 L2
For 3-phase, total volume = 3AL=3  2 
L =
WV Cos   WV 2Cos 2
2

Thus, Volume  1/V2

The volume of the conductor is inversely proportional to the square of the voltage, i.e.: the greater
the transmission voltage is the lesser will be the volume of the conductor material needed.

(b) It increases the efficiency. We know that at high voltages, current are reduced accordingly. As a
result, the line voltage drops and thermal losses, IR and I2R, respectively, will also be reduced.
In other words at high transmission voltages, the efficiency of transmission will be high.

(c) The reduction of voltage drop (IR) will result in better line regulation.

Limitations of High Transmission Voltages

Increasing transmission voltages has certain limitations, as at higher voltages, the cost of insulation
and switchgears will be considerably increased. The high voltage transmission will have the
following limitations:
(a) Increase in the cost of insulators. A large number of discs (suspension insulators) are
provided at high voltages to insulate wires and supports.
(b) Cost of towers.

The clearance of conductors from the ground and also between themselves increases with the
increase in transmission voltages. Thus higher towers with longer cross arms have to be used. This
will increase cost.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 29 -
4.5.4 Economical Transmission Voltage

The transmission voltages at which the cost of conductors, insulators, switchgears and other needed
equipment comes to be minimum is known as “Economic transmission voltage”. For finding the
economical transmission voltage, the power to be transmitted and the length of transmission line
should be known. Then calculate the cost of conductors, insulators, supports, switchgears,
transformers, lighting arrestors etc. for different values of transmission voltages. This gives the total
cost of transmission.

Now a graph is drawn between different transmission voltages and the corresponding transmission
cost (Fig. 4.5). The lowest point on the graph a gives the most economical transmission voltage.
From the graph, the most economical transmission voltage OM can be found out. An easier method
to find the economical voltage is by calculation.

The empirical formula which gives the economic voltage between lines in a 3-phase ac system is
given by:

3P
V = 5.5 0.62 L + = 5.5 km / 1.61 + load in kVA/150 ,
150
where: V-is the line voltage in kV;
L-is the distance of transmission line km;
P-maximum power per phase to be delivered to a single circuit in kW.
Transmission
Cost of

O M
Transmission Voltage

Fig. 4.5

Consider: - 1. Economical size of conductor – Kelvin’s law

2. Limitations of Kelvin’s law

4.6 Electric Transmission Line Parameters

An electric transmission line is modeled using series resistance, series inductance, shunt
capacitance, and shunt conductance (primary parameters-RLCG). The line resistance and inductive
reactance are important. For some studies it is possible to omit the shunt capacitance and
conductance and thus simplify the equivalent circuit considerably.

We deal here with aspects of determining these parameters on the basis of line length, type of
conductor used, and the spacing of the conductors as they are mounted on the supporting structure.

A wire or combination of wires not insulated from one another is called a conductor. A stranded
conductor is composed of a group of wires, usually twisted or braided together. In a concentrically
stranded conductor, each successive layer contains six more wires than the preceding one. There
are two basic constructions: the one-wire core and the three-wire core.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 30 -
4.6.1 Types of Conductors and Conductor Materials

Phase conductors in EHV-UHV transmission systems employ aluminum conductors and aluminum
or steel conductors for overhead ground wires. Many types of cables are available.
These include:

A. Aluminum Conductors

There are five designs:

1. Homogeneous designs: These are denoted as All-Aluminum-Conductors (AAC) or All-
Aluminum-Alloy Conductors (AAAC).
2. Composite designs: These are essentially aluminum conductor-steel-reinforced conductors
(ACSR) with steel core material.
3. Expanded ACSR: These use solid aluminum strands with a steel core. Expansion is by open
helices (coil) of aluminum wire, flexible concentric tubes, or combinations of aluminum wires
and fibrous ropes.
4. Aluminum-clad conductor (Alumoweld).
5. Aluminum-coated conductors.

B. Steel Conductors
Galvanized steel conductors with various thicknesses of zinc coatings are used.

4.6.2 Primary Parameters

Line Resistance

Though the contribution of line resistance to series line impedance can be neglected in most cases,
it is the main source of line power loss. In other words, the resistance of the conductor is the most
important cause of power loss in a power line. Thus while considering transmission line economy,
the presence of line resistance must be considered.

The effective AC resistance is given by,

average power loss in conductor in watts

R= ohms (4.1)
I2
where I is the rms current in the conductor in amperes.

Ohmic or Direct-current (DC) resistance is given by the formula:

l
Rdc = ohms (4.2)
A
where,
=resistivity of the conductor, ohm-m
l =length, m
A=cross-sectional area, m2

Resistance of a line can also be determined by using the equation R = rol ohms
Any consistent set of units may be used in the calculation of resistance. In the SI system of units, ρ
is expressed in ohm-meters, length in meters, and area in square meters, ro is in ohms/km. A system
commonly used by power systems engineers expresses resistivity in ohms circular mils per foot,
length in feet, and area in circular mils.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 31 -
The effective resistance given by equation (4.1) is equal to the DC resistance of the conductor given
by equation (4.2) only if the current distribution is uniform throughout the conductor.

There are certain limitations in the use of this equation for calculating the resistance of transmission
line conductors. The following factors need to be considered:

1. Effect of conductor stranding.

2. When ac flows in a conductor, the current is not distributed uniformly over the conductor cross-
sectional area. This is called skin effect and is a result of the non-uniform flux distribution in the
conductor. This increases the resistance of the conductor.
3. The resistance of magnetic conductors varies with current magnitude.
4. In a transmission line there is a non-uniformity of current distribution caused by a higher current
density in the elements of adjacent conductors nearest each other than in the elements farther
apart. The phenomenon is known as proximity effect. It is present for three-phase as well as
single-phase circuits. For the usual spacing of overhead lines at 60 Hz, the proximity effect is
neglected.

Read on: line inductance, admittance and conductance

4.6.3 ABCD Parameters of Transmission Line

ABCD parameters are generalized parameters of transmission line. These parameters are quite
helpful for calculation and analysis of transmission line. In any four terminal network (or Two-port
network), the input voltage and current can be expressed in terms of output voltage and current
provided the network should be passive, linear and bilateral. Fortunately, a transmission line is a
four terminal network and above all it is a passive, linear and bilateral network. Therefore, input
voltage and current of transmission line can be expressed in terms of output voltage and current.

For a transmission line, it is better to call input voltage and current as Sending end voltage and
current. Similarly, output voltage as receiving end voltage and current.

Fig. 4.6 Two –Port Network

Let,
VR = Receiving end voltage
Vs = Sending end voltage
Is = Sending end current
IR = Receiving end current

Thus we can write,

Vs = AVR + BIR (4.3)

Is = CVR + DIR (4.4)

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 32 -
Here A, B, C and D are constants and known as Generalized Circuit Constants of transmission line.
The values of constants can easily be calculated from the above equations. The values also depend
on the particular method adopted for solving the transmission network. For calculating the values
of the ABCD parameters, we will consider two cases. Bold sign in the entire post means vector
form of the quantity.

Case (1): When Receiving end is open

As the receiving end is open, therefore load current through the line will be zero. Thus IR = 0.
From equation (4.3).

A = Vs / VR

Notice that the unit of A is dimension less and also called voltage ratio.
From equation (4.4),

C = Is / VR

From the above expression of constant C, it is clear that, the unit of C is Mho. This constant is
known as open circuit conductance.

Case (2): When receiving end is shorted

As the receiving end is shorted, therefore load end voltage will be zero. Thus VR = 0.
From equation (4.3),

B = Vs / IR

Notice that the unit of B is same as that of impedance i.e. Ohm and called short circuit resistance.

From equation (4.4),

D = Is / IR

Thus D is a dimension less quantity and known as current ratio.

Features of ABCD Parameters

Following are some of the important points about ABCD parameters, which shall always be kept
in mind:

• The constants A, B, C and D are usually complex numbers and hence a phasor.
• For a given system,
A=D
and AD – BC = 1

4.6.4 Determination of ABCD Parameters for Transmission Line

We will determine the value of these parameters for short as well as medium transmission lines.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 33 -
Short Transmission Line – ABCD Parameters

In the case of lines up to 100 km, the effect of shunt capacitance in short transmission line is
neglected, therefore the equivalent circuit for single phase for short transmission line can be shown
as in Fig. 1.

Fig. 4.7 Equivalent Network of a Short Line

From Fig. 4.7,

Is = IR (4.5)

and Vs = VR + IRZ (4.6)

Comparing equation (4.5) & (4.6) with equation (4.3) & (4.4), we get

A = 1, B = Z, C = 0 and D = 1

Thus we see that, A = D and AD – BC = 1

Medium Transmission Line – ABCD Parameters

For lines more than 100 km long, charging currents due to shunt admittance cannot be neglected.
We will find the ABCD parameters for two models of medium transmission line i.e. for Nominal T
and Nominal π Model.
a) Nominal T Model
If all the shunt capacitance is lumped at the middle of the line, it leads to the nominal-T circuit.
The equivalent circuit diagram for Nominal T model for single phase of transmission line is shown
in Fig. 4.8.

Fig. 4.8 Equivalent Circuit Diagram for Medium Line, Nominal –T Model

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 34 -
From the Fig. 4.8,

Vs = V1 + IsZ/2 (These are in phasor form)

But V1 = VR + IRZ/2 (These are in phasor form)

Again,
Ic = Is – IR

= V1Y, where Y = Shunt admittance

= Y (VR + IRZ/2)

Therefore,

Is = IR + YVR + YIRZ/2

= YVR + IR (1 + YZ / 2) (4.7)

Putting the value of V1 in the expression of Vs, we get

Vs = VR + IRZ/2 + IsZ/2

Putting the value of Is in the above expression, we get

Vs = (1 + YZ / 2) VR + (Z + YZ2 / 4) IR (4.8)

Comparing equation (4.8) with (4.3), we get

A = 1 + YZ / 2

B = Z + YZ2 / 4 = Z (1 + YZ / 4)

Comparing equation (4.7) with (4.4), we get

C=Y
D = 1 + YZ / 2

Thus the ABCD Parameters for Nominal T model of medium transmission line are

A = D = 1 + YZ / 2

B = Z (1 + YZ / 4)

C=Y

b) Nominal π Model

The equivalent circuit diagram for Nominal π model for single phase of transmission line is shown
in Fig. 4.9.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 35 -
 Fig. 4.9 Equivalent Circuit Diagram for Medium Line, Nominal – π Model

As clear from the Fig.4.9,

Is = IL + IC2

Is = IL + VsY/2 where Y = Shunt Admittance = jωC

Again,

IL = IR + IC1

= IR + VRY/2 where Y = Shunt Admittance = jωC

Now, we will calculate the value of sending end voltage and current in terms of receiving end
voltage and current.

Vs = VR + ILZ

Putting the value of IL, we get

Vs = VR + (IR + VRY/2) Z

= (1 + YZ/2) VR + ZIR (4.9)

Now,

Is = IL + VsY/2

Putting the value of IL we get,

Is = (IR + VRY/2) + VsY/2

Now, putting the value of Vs we get,

Is = (IR + VRY/2) + [(1 + YZ/2) VR + ZIR] x Y/2

= (1+ YZ/2) IR + Y (1+ YZ/4)VR (4.10)

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 36 -
Comparing equation (4.9) with (4.3),

A = 1 + YZ/2

B=Z

Comparing equation (4.10) with (4.4),

C = Y (1+ YZ/4)

D = 1 + YZ/2

Thus the ABCD Parameters for Nominal π model of medium transmission line are:

A = D = 1 + YZ/2

B=Z

C = Y (1+ YZ/4)

The conformity of AD – BC = 1 can be checked easily.

Worked Examples
Ex.1:
Using the nominal- method, find the sending-end voltage of a 250 km, three-phase, 50 Hz,
transmission line delivering 25 MVA at 0.8 lagging power factor to a balanced load at 132 kV. The
line conductors are spaced equilaterally 3 m apart. The conductor resistance is 0.11 ohm/km and its
effective diameter is 1.6 cm. Neglect leakance (Conductance)

Solution:

Now, L= 0.461log (D/ri) = 0.461log (300/0.7788×0.8) = 1.24 mH/km

C = (0.0242)/ (logD/r) = (0.0242)/(log300/0.8) = 0.0094 µF/km

R = rol=0.11×250=27.5 Ω

X=2fLl=2×50×1.24×10-3×250 = 97.4 Ω

Z = R + jX = 27.5 + j97.4 = 101.274.2 

Y = jCl = 314  0.0094 10 −6  25090 = 7.38 10 −4 90 S

25  1000
IR =  − 36.9 = 109 .3 − 36.9 A
3  132
132
VR ( perphase) = 0 = 76.20 kV
3

Hence sending-end voltage will be,

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 37 -
 1
VS = (1 + YZ )VR + ZI R
2
1
= (1 +  7.38  10 −4 90  101 .274.2)  76.2 + 101 .274.2  109 .3  10 −3  − 36.9
2
= 76.2 + 2.85164 .2 + 11.0637.3 = 82.26 + j 7.48 = 82.65.2
 Vs (line) = 82.6  3 = 143 kV
Ex.2
A 150 km, 3-phase, 110 V, 50 Hz transmission line transmits a load of 40,000 kW at 0.8 p.f. lag at
the receiving end.
resistance/km/phase =0.15 Ω
reactance/km/phase =0.6 Ω
susceptance/km/phase =10-5 S.
Determine the A, B, C and D constants of the line.
Solution:
Using the nominal- method and a length of 150 km;
R = 0.15 ×150 = 22.5 Ω
X = 0.6×150 = 90 Ω
Y = 150×10-5 = 15×10-4 S
Z = R + jX = 22.5 + j90 = 92.875 
Y = 15  10 −4 90 S
YZ j15  10 −4
A = D = (1 + ) =1+ (22.5 + j 90) = 0.9675 + j 0.01688 = 0.9681.0
2 2
B = Z = 92.875
YZ  1 
C = Y (1 + ) = j15  10 −4 1 + j15  10 −4 (22.5 + j90) = −0.00001266 + j 0.00145 = 0.00145 90.5 kV
4  4 
Try:
A 50 Hz transmission line 300 km long has a total series impedance of 40+j125 Ω and a total shunt
admittance of 10-3 mho. The receiving-end load is 50 MW at 220 kV with 0.8 lagging power factor.
Find: (i) sending-end voltage
(ii) sending-end current
(iii) sending-end power
(iv) sending-end power factor, using:
(a) Short-line approximation
(b) Nominal- method.

4.7 Power Substations

The creation of huge power houses is the present need to meet the drastically increasing power
demands. Usually large power-generating stations are built far away from load centres. Long
transmission lines are necessary to transmit the bulk amount of power at higher voltage levels. In
between the generating station and last customer end, a number of transformation and switching
stations have to be installed. These are generally known as substations.

Therefore, a substation can be defined as a part of an electrical generation, transmission and

distribution system, where voltage is transformed from high to low or vice versa. Substations are
locations where transmission lines are tied together. They fulfill a number of functions such as:
• They allow power from different generating stations to be fed into the main transmission
corridors.
• They provide a terminus for interconnections with other systems.
J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 38 -
 • They provide a location where transformers can be connected to feed power into the sub
transmission or distribution systems.
• They allow transmission lines to be segmented to provide a degree of redundancy in the
transmission paths.
• They provide a location where compensation devices such as shunt or series reactors or
capacitors can be connected to the transmission system.
• They provide a location where transmission lines can be de-energized, either for
maintenance or because of an electrical malfunction involving the line.
• They provide a location for protection, control, and metering equipment.

4.7.1 Substation Equipment (Components)

There are a number of designs used for substations. However, there are elements common to all:

Bus is the given name given to the electrical structure to which all lines and transformers are
connected. Buses are of two generic types: open air and enclosed. Enclosed buses are used when
substations are located in buildings or outdoors where space is at a premium. They involve the use
of an insulating gas such as sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) to allow reduced spacing between energized
phases. Bus structures are designed to withstand the large mechanical forces that can result from
fields produced by high short-circuit currents. These forces vary with the third power of the current.
A bus section is the part of a bus to which a single line or transformer is connected.

Protective relays are devices that continuously monitor the voltages and currents associated with
the line and its terminals to detect failures or malfunctions in the line/equipment. Such failures are
called faults and involve contact between phases or between one or more phases and ground. The
relays actuate circuit breakers.

Circuit breakers are devices that are capable of interrupting the flow of electricity to isolate either
a line or a transformer. They do so by opening the circuit and extinguishing the arc that forms using
a variety of technologies such as oil, vacuum, air blast or sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). Breakers may
be in series with the line or transformer or may be installed on both sides of the bus section where
the line connects. They allow individual lines or transformers to be removed from service (de-
energized) automatically when equipment (protective relays) detects operating conditions outside
a safe range. They must be capable of interrupting the very high currents that occur during fault
conditions and are rated by the amount of current they can interrupt. These fault current levels can
be 20 or 30 times larger than the current flow under normal operating conditions, that is, thousands
of amperes. To minimize the impact of electrical “shocks” to the transmission system, minimizing
the total time for the relay to detect the condition and the circuit breaker to open the circuit is a
critical design issue. Circuit breakers also allow lines or transformers to be removed from service
for maintenance. Circuit breakers normally interrupt all three phases simultaneously, although in
certain special applications, single-phase circuit breakers can be employed, which will open only
the phase with a problem.

Transformers are devices that are used to connect facilities operating at two different voltage levels.
For example a transformer would be used to connect a 138 kV bus to a 13 kV bus. The transformer
connects to all three phases of the bus. Physically the transformers can include all three phases
within one tank or there can be three separate tanks, one per phase. Larger capacity units may have
three separate tanks because their size and weight may be a limiting factor because of transportation
issues.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 39 -
Transformers can be designed with two mechanisms to adjust the voltage ratio. One mechanism is
the provision of more than one fixed tap position on one side of the transformer. For example, a
transformer might have a nominal turns ratio of 345/138, with fixed taps on the 345 kV winding of
327.8, 336.7, 345, 353.6 and 362.3. The transformer must be deenergized to adjust the fixed tap
ratio. Another mechanism is called tap changing under load (TCUL). In this mechanism the ratio
can be adjusted while the transformer is energized, providing greater operating flexibility.

Some transformers have both types of mechanisms; with a fixed tap adjustment in the high voltage
winding and the TCUL adjustment in the low voltage winding.

Another type transformer is an autotransformer, which is used when facilities at nearly the same
voltage are to be connected, for example, 138 kV to 115 kV. Rather than having two separate paths
for the electricity, connected only by the magnetic flux through the transformer as in a conventional
unit, the winding of autotransformer involves a tap on the higher voltage winding which supplies
the lower voltage.

All larger transformers have mechanisms to remove the heat generated within the tank involving
some manner of circulating the transformer insulating/cooling oil through an external heat
exchanger involving fins mounted on the side of the transformer and fans to circulate air across the
fins to maximize heat dissipation.

Disconnect switches are used to open a circuit when only “charging” current present is due. These
would be used primarily to connect or disconnect circuit breakers or transformers which are not
carrying load current. They are also used in conjunction with circuit breakers to provide another
level of safety for workers by inserting a second opening between station equipment out of service
for work and the still energized section of line or bus.

Lightning arrestors are used to protect transformers and switchgear from the effects of high voltage
due to lightning stroke or a switching operation. They are designed to flashover when the voltage
at the transformer exceeds a pre-selected level which is chosen by the station design engineers to
coordinate with the basic insulation level of the transformer (BIL).

Metering equipment is provided to measure line and transformer loadings and bus voltages so
operating personnel can ensure that these facilities are within acceptable limits. Metering equipment
also is provided at some locations to measure the flow of energy for the billing that is required for
sales and purchases of energy between various participants in the electric energy market.

SCADA is an acronym for system or supervisory control and data acquisition. It reflects the
improvements in measurement, telecommunications and computing technologies that allow more
and more automation of substation operation.

Depending on the electrical characteristics of a particular part of the transmission system, other
equipment that may be located at a substation are:

Shunt reactors (reactors connected from the energized bus to ground) are installed to control high
voltages that occur especially at night due to the capacitive effect of lightly loaded transmission
lines. These reactors can be energized always or they can be energized only at specific times. Shunt
reactors are also used to reduce or control the high voltages that can occur when a sudden loss of a
block of customer load occurs. The windings, insulation and the external tank are similar to those
used for transformers.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 40 -
Series reactors are installed in a transmission line to increase the impedance of the line, to decrease
current levels in the event of short circuits, or to reduce its loading under various operating
conditions.

Shunt capacitors are installed to provide mVArs to the system to help support voltage levels.

Series capacitors are installed to reduce the effective impedance of a transmission line. These
would be installed in very long transmission lines to effectively reduce the electrical angle between
the sending and the receiving parts of the system, enabling more power to flow over the line and
increasing stability limits.

Phase angle regulating transformers are installed to control power flow through a transmission
line, causing more or less power to flow over desired lines. They use a variant on the design of a
normal transformer, in which, due to the specialized way they are wound, they electrically inject an
angular phase shift into the line. The angle can be made to either increase or decrease power flow
on the line. Since they are expensive, they are often used on cable systems where, because of cost
and limited capacity of cables, maximum utilization of all parallel cable capacity was essential.

In recent years, some of them are being installed in overhead transmission lines to control parallel
path flow, when power flows over paths in other systems not involved in transactions, or do not
have adequate capacity.

FACTS (Flexible ac Transmission Systems) is a generic name used for a variety of devices intended
to dynamically control voltage, impedance or phase angle of HVAC lines.

These devices mirror and extend the benefits of the fixed series and shunt inductors and capacitors
previously discussed in that the FACTS devices allow rapid and precise adjustments. Depending
on the device, these FACTS devices provide a number of benefits: increased power transfer
capability, rapid voltage control, improved system stability, and mitigation of sub-synchronous
resonance (a condition experienced in a number of regions in the United States, where oscillations
occur caused by interaction of generator control systems and the capacitance of long transmission
distances). There are many devices by many manufacturers, some of which are in the development
stage and a few of which are in service. The names of the devices vary somewhat, depending on
the manufacturer. The following lists some of the devices:
• Static VAr Compensators (SVCs) - These devices employ fixed banks of capacitors,
controlled with thyristors, which can switch them on and off rapidly. In many instances,
there are also thyristor-switched inductors to prevent system resonance.

• Thyristor Controlled Series Compensators (or Series Capacitors) (TCSCs) - A thyristor

controlled reactor is placed in parallel with a series capacitor, allowing a continuous and
rapidly variable series compensation system.

• Static Compensators (STATCOMs) are gate turn-off type thyristors (GTO) based SVCs.
They are solid-state synchronous voltage generators that consist of multi-pulsed, voltage
sourced inverters connected in shunt with transmission lines. They do not require capacitor
banks and shunt reactors but rely on electronic processing of voltage and current waveforms
to provide inductive or capacitive reactive power. They have the added advantage that their
output is not seriously impacted by low system voltage.

• Unified Power Flow Controllers (UPFC) - These devices have shunt connected STATCOM
with an additional series branch in the transmission line supplied by the STATCOM’s dc

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 41 -
 circuit. These devices are comparable to phase shifting transformers. They can control all
three basic power transfer parameters: voltage, impedance and phase angle.

• SVC Light4 (STATCOM) - Are based on voltage source converter technology equipped
with Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) a power switching component. They
provide reactive power as well as absorption purely by means of electronic processing of
voltage and current waveforms.

4.7.2 Types of Substations

Substations may be classified as follows depending upon their purpose:

1. Generating Substations: These are also known as step-up substations. These are associated with
the generating stations. It is economical to generate the power at low value of voltage and to
transmit at higher values. Generating units are connected to the step-up transformers to increase
the voltage up to transmission voltage levels.

2. Grid Substations: These substations are located in the intermediate points between the generating
stations and load centres to provide connections of low-voltage lines.

3. Secondary Substations: These substations are connected with secondary transmission lines.
These substations are located at the load points where the voltage is further stepped down to sub-
transmission and primary distribution voltage.

4. Distribution Substations: These substations are located where the sub-transmission or primary
distribution voltage is stepped down to supply voltage. These substations supply the power to
the actual consumers through distributors and service lines.

Depending upon the constructional features, the substations may be further sub-divided into:

1. Outdoor Substations: From the economy and safety point of view, the outdoor substations are
used for 11 kV and above voltage levels. All equipment except control and monitoring
equipment installed in open air.

2. Indoor type: These substations are preferred in the big cities when the load centre line in the
heart of cities. The operating voltages are normally 400 V and 11 kV.

3. Pole mounted: These substations are mounted on the poles. These substations are very simple in
construction and economic as there is no need of any building.

4. Underground type: Whole substation is made underground. These substations are used where
the space is not available.

A substation comprises of several transformers and several incoming and outgoing lines.

4.7.3 Substation Breaker (Bus bar) Arrangements

There are numerous ways in which the switching equipment can be connected between the
generating station and the receiving station or in a distribution system. The choice of the scheme
mainly depends upon the following criteria:
1. Flexibility of operation
2. Continuity of supply

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 42 -
3. Economic aspects
4. The degree of maintenance required
5. Scope of extension
6. Safety and simplicity

With these basic requirements, there are several combinations available. These are as follows:

(a) Single Bus Bar Arrangement

This type of scheme is favoured for small and medium size stations where periodic shut downs can
be permitted. It consists of a single (3-phase) to which various feeders are connected as shown in
Fig. 4.10 of a fault or when the maintenance in case of the line is required, the whole bus bar has to
be shut down.

Fig. 4.10 A Single Bus Bar Arrangement

(b) Duplicate Bus Bar Arrangement

For large systems, the technical aspects overcomes the economic considerations, since in these
networks shut down results in disconnecting a large supply area.
The duplicate bus bar system incorporates flexibility, reliability and also permits periodic
maintenance. A reserve bus can be used in case of a fault. Fig. 4.11shows a duplicate bus bar
arrangement, there are two buses one main bus and a reserve bus. The coupler can be closed so as
to connect the two buses. In more important stations the transfer bus is used to transfer the power
from Bus I to Bus II.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 43 -
Fig. 4.11 Duplicate Bus Bar Arrangement (Single Line Diagram of 3-Phase System)

(c) Sectionalizing of Bus

The purpose of sectionalizing the bus bar arrangement is to incorporate some added advantages to
the existing system. Firstly, the continuity of supply of one section is unterrupted while the
maintenance of other section is carried out; secondly, the fault MVA is reduced, by the addition of
current limiting reactor, hence we can use circuit breaker (CB) of lesser capacity. This type is shown
in Fig. 4.12.

Fig. 4.12a Sectionalized Single Bus Bar Systems

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 44 -
 Fig. 4.12b Sectionalized Single Bus Bar Systems

(d) Ring Bus Bar Arrangement

This type of bus bar arrangement (Fig. 4.13) adds more reliability to the power system. If a fault
takes place in any one section no other adjacent sections are affected by it, and their continuity of
supply s restored as shown in the figure. Also, the supply can be taken from any adjacent section.

Fig. 4.13 Ring Bus Bar System

(e) One and a Half Breaker Arrangement

This arrangement (Fig. 4.14) needs three circuit breakers for two circuits. By this arrangement, if
we require maintenance we can switch either circuit breaker without any by-pass.

This arrangement is used for the high power circuits, and gives a greater degree of security against
loss of supply.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 45 -
 Fig. 4.14 One and a Half Breaker Arrangement

The breaker and half design is the one most usually used in newer transmission substations since it
provides excellent reliability and operating flexibility. A typical substation layout and single line
diagram are shown is shown in Fig. 4.15 and Fig. 4.16.

Fig. 4.15 Substation Layout

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 46 -
 Fig. 4.16 132/33 kV Substation Single Line Diagram

4.7.4 Basic Criteria for Selection of 33 kV/ 11 kV or 66 kV/11 kV Substation

Basically 33 kV / 11 kV is used for distribution of power at the substation and 66 kV / 11 kV is also

used for the distribution. But whether to use 66/11 kV or 33/11 kV depends on many factors.

Following are some of the factors which are taken care for the selection of voltage of substation:

Fig. 4.17 A Pictorial View of a Substation

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 47 -
a) The substation rating is defined as per the power handling capacity, location and purpose of
substation.
b) Thumb rule for the economical voltage rating has been categorized for different power range to be
received as below:

• Load up to 150 MVA – voltage rating of 132 kV.

• Load up to 80 MVA – voltage rating of 66 kV.
• Load up to 5 MVA – Voltage rating of 33 kV.

Thus, when a substation is of rating 66/11 kV, means substation has been designed to receive 80
MVA on 66 kV and it will distribute the received power on 11 kV.

Again, substation of rating 33/11 kV means, the substation has been designed to receive 5 MVA of
power at 33 kV and it will distribute the same on 11 kV.

Assignment:
1. Study on the Advantages and Disadvantages of each bus bar arrangement
2. Compare each of the bus bar configuration outlined above under the following headings:
a) Reliability;
b) Cost.

4.8 Distribution Systems

4.8.1 The Local Distribution System

Distribution is mainly concerned with the conveyance of this power to consumers by means of Low
voltage networks.

The distribution system begins either at the substation where power is delivered over-by
transformers or in some cases at the generating station itself.

The local distribution system consists basically of a step-down (e.g. 33/11 kV) on-load tap-changing
transformer at a bulk supply point feeding a number of lines which can vary in length from a few
hundred meters to several kilometres.

A series of step-down 3 – phase transformers e.g. 11 kV/415 kV are spaced along routes and from
these are supplied to the consumer 3 – phase to houses and similar loads.

The structure of the network varies with location. In rural areas, radial feeders are often used
(usually overhead lines), whereas in urban areas a well – defined low – voltage area or block is fed
from the higher voltage network. For security reasons such areas are similar areas which are fed
from different feeders. In such systems the network has essentially a topology or structure of a loop
nature.

A Typical Local Distribution System is shown in Fig. 4.18.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 48 -
 From transmission system
11 kV duplicate
bus- bar

33 kV
Capital-substation

To main To main substation

substation

Main-substation

11 kV
11 kV feeders to
open rings

415/240V

Transformer chamber
supplying distribution Fuse
network
Service to buildings etc.

Fig. 4.18 A Typical Local Distribution System

4.8.2 Classification of the Distribution Network

Distribution network is that part of the power system, which distributes electrical power to
consumers for their use. It is a network of conductors consisting of:

a) Feeders
b) Distributors (sub-distributors), and
c) Service lines

(a) A feeder is a conductor, joining a sub-station with the locality, where power is to be distributed.
The conductor, used as a feeder, should have the required current carrying capacity.
(b) A distributor is a conductor from which tapings are taken for supplying power to individual
consumers. Therefore, it causes voltage drop and the current varies throughout the length of the
distributor. For designing a distributor, voltage drop is the main consideration.
(c) A service line is a piece of small conductor, which joins the energy meter of a consumer with
the distributor. A typical distribution system (Fig. 4.19) has a sub-station (S), feeders (F) SA,
SC, SD, and distributors (D) AB, BC, CD and DA. From the distributors, tapping are taken out
as service lines to consumers, the layout of such a distribution network is shown in Fig. 4.20(a,
b).

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 49 -
 Fig. 4.19 Typical Distribution System

Fig. 4.20 The Layout of the Distribution Network of Fig. 4.19

4.8.3 Classification of Distribution Systems

(a) According to voltage: the distribution system may be, primary or secondary. The primary
distribution is done at 11 kV and the secondary, at 440 V.
(b) According to the kind of currents: it may be carrying DC or AC.
(c) According to service: it may serve a house (domestic) or an industry.
(d) According to construction: it may go along roads with poles, insulators, etc, or underground
in trenches.
(e) According to number of wires: it may be 2 wire (DC or AC single phase), 3 wire (DC or
AC 3 phase) or wire (AC 3 phase with neutral).
(f) According to connection schemes: the distribution scheme may be of three types:

i) Radial scheme
ii) Ring main scheme
iii) Interconnected scheme.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 50 -
 Fig. 4.21 The Distribution System Chart

i) Radial scheme

In this scheme, feeders radiate from a sub-station in all directions and feed distributors at one
end only (Fig. 4.22). As seen, SA is the feeder, which feeds the distributor BC at its end B. In
the distributor, a transformer may be used to step down the voltage. A DC radial scheme is
shown in Fig. 4.23.

This scheme has two advantages:

1) The radial scheme is useful when the sub-station is located at the centre of the load.
2) It is a simple and economical scheme.

This scheme also has several disadvantages such as:

1) The consumers are connected with one feeder and one distributor. In the case of a fault, all
the consumers suffer. There is no alternative for maintaining the supply.
2) The consumers, at the end of the distributor, suffer from a heavy voltage drop.
3) The point B is heavily loaded.
4) It is only used for short distances.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 51 -
 C

Distributor

Feeder
Service lines
Feeder Feeder
Transformer

S Consumers
B A
Distributor
Feeder

Fig. 4.22 AC Radial Scheme Fig. 4.23 A DC Radial Scheme

Fig. 4.24 Ring Main Scheme

ii) Ring main scheme

In this scheme, the feeder makes a close loop or ring (Fig. 4.24). It starts from the sub-station,
travels through the whole area, and returns to the sub-station. Distributors are tapped at a
number of points on the feeder. The DC ring main scheme is shown in Fig. 4.25. As seen
ABCDEF is a feeder, which starts from point A (i.e. S.S.) and, after going through the entire
area, it returns at A and thus forms a ‘ring’. At its various points, distributors are tapped. Each
distributor is fed from two feeders, eg. The distributor at C is getting supply from two feeders
i.e. from CBA and CDEFA. If a breakdown occurs, it can be repaired and the distributor can be
supplied from the other during that period. Thus continuity of supply can be maintained, which
was not possible in the case of the radial scheme. This is the reason why the ring scheme has
replaced the radial scheme.

Fig. 4.25 D.C Ring Main Scheme

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 52 -
Advantages of the ring scheme

1) The voltage fluctuation is less as compared to the radial scheme;

2) The reliability of supply is more as each consumer is supplied from two feeders. The
arrangement is equivalent to two feeders in parallel on different routes;
3) Less copper is required as each part carries lesser current than in the radial system.

iii) Interconnected scheme

This scheme is similar to the ring scheme with the difference that, in this, the feeder is fed from
two or more sub-station, which increases reliability even more than the ring scheme. The two
or more sub-stations are interconnected together.

An AC interconnected scheme, is shown in Fig. 4.26, whiles a DC interconnected scheme is

shown in Fig. 4.27. It is seen (Fig. 4.27) that the feeder is fed at 2 points, i.e., at A and C from
sub-stations S1and S2, respectively. Distributors are tapped from its different points; from the
distributors, service lines are tapped for consumers.

The advantages of such schemes are as follows:

(a) If a sub-station is over-loaded, the load can be transferred to the other station.
(b) The scheme is all the more reliable due to two sub-stations.

Fig. 4.26 A.C Interconnected Scheme Fig. 4.27 D.C Interconnected Scheme

4.8.4 Requirements of a Good Distribution Scheme

i) Reliability of supply should be maintained, if there is a breakdown, it should be for the

leaser possible time.
ii) The voltage drop, at any consumer terminal, should remain within  6% of the declared
voltage.
iii) The efficiency of the system should not be less than 90%.
iv) The insulation resistance of the system should be high, so that there is no leakage.
v) The system should be economical.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 53 -
 CHAPTER 5

LINE INSULATORS
5.1 Introduction
The purpose of the insulator or insulation is to insulate the electrically charged part of any
equipment or machine from another charged part or uncharged metal part. Line insulators are
installed on line supports to support, anchor and insulate conductors from ground. These help in
avoiding direct contact of the conductors with the pole. Thus, any leakage through the support to
the earth is stopped, and the risk of electric shock from poles is also minimised.

At lower utilization voltage the insulation also completely covers the live conductor and acts as a
barrier and keeps the live conductors unreachable from human being or animals. In case of the high
voltage overhead transmission and distribution the transmission towers or poles support the lines,
and insulators are used to insulate the live conductor from the transmission towers. The insulators
used in transmission and distribution system are also required to carry large tensional or
compressive load.

The HV/EHV insulators are broadly divided into three types based on the material used. They are
made of porcelain (ceramic), glass and several synthetic materials (e.g. polymers). Electrically,
insulators must provide high resistance to leakage currents and they have to withstand certain
voltage without damage. Mechanically, they must withstand the pull due to the conductor weight.

Now polymer or composite insulators are increasingly used in high voltage transmission systems.
The polymer insulators have a fibre rod surrounded by outer sheath of some polymer. Due to the
hydrophobic nature of the polymer insulator surface, dry areas are formed between wet areas
resulting in discontinuities in wet creepage path. This phenomenon helps improve the performance
of the polymer insulator in polluted and coastal areas. The polymer insulators have one great
advantage that it is quite lighter in comparison to porcelain insulators. Polymeric insulator surface
degrade faster in comparison to porcelain insulator. One important disadvantage with porcelain
insulator is that the porcelain insulators can bear large compressive force but less tensional force.
The porcelain insulators surface is hydrophilic in nature, which means affinity for water. Polymer
insulators age faster than ceramic insulators.

A comparison of porcelain and glass insulator materials is given in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Comparison of the Insulator Materials

Porcelain Glass
1. It is mechanically stronger. It is not strong; it is fragile.
2. Its surface may be glazed to prevent The surface cannot be glazed; it may
accumulation of water, dust and dirt, therefore, cause surface leakage.
and, thus, surface leakage can be
minimised.
3. It is made in pieces, joined with one It can be made in a single piece.
another by cement or some other
binding material.
4. Internal cracks or faults cannot be easily It is transparent; even visual inspection
detected as it is not transparent. can detect internal cracks/faults.
5. It is not as homogeneous as glass. It is more homogeneous than porcelain
6. Its dielectric strength is about 70 kV per It dielectric strength is about 150 kV per
cm. cm.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 54 -
According to construction, line insulators are of the following types:
i) Pin Insulators
ii) Shackle Insulators
iii) Strain Insulators
iv) Egg/stay Insulators
v) Suspension Insulators
(i) Pin Insulators

These insulators are mounted on the pole with the help of a pin, hence, the name. They have a
groove at their top, and the conductor is tied in the groove by a binding wire going through its neck.

The pin type insulators may be ‘single piece’ or ‘multi piece’. Up to 11 kV, a single piece insulator
is used, whereas for higher voltages, insulators with many pieces (each called petticoat or shed),
joined together, are used. Though their surface is glazed to prevent any leakage, the leakage path is
decreased with special construction.

Pin insulators are cheap and can be used safely up to 33 kV. They are weak in tension. This is why
they are used on the straight run of the line. A pin insulator is shown in Fig. 5.1

Fig. 5.1 Pin Insulators

For higher voltages, pin type insulators have limitations as they become bulky (due to more number
of petticoats) and also costly. Therefore, for higher voltage applications, suspension insulators are
used, which have no pin problem.

(ii) Shackle Insulators

Shackle insulators are used on low tension (L.T.) lines (Fig. 5.2). They are fixed with the pole
through nuts and bolts, with the help of a clamp D-strap. They can be used in horizontal as well as
vertical position. The conductor is fixed on its neck and tied with a binding wire.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 55 -
 Fig. 5.2 Shackle Insulator

(iii) Strain Insulators

This are used at dead ends, corners and sharp turns of the line, where strain is more, (Fig. 5.3). For
high tension (H.T.) lines, an assembly of suspension insulators is used as strain insulators. At extra
high tension (E.H.T.) lines, two or more such strings are used in parallel. The discs of strain
insulators are used in the vertical plane while suspension insulators are used in the horizontal plane.

Fig. 5.3 Strain Insulator

(iv) Egg Insulators

They are of egg shape and used on stay wires (Fig. 5.4). Therefore, they are also, sometimes, called
as stay insulators. They are put at a height of about 3 m from the ground. Their purpose is to protect
human beings against shock through stay wires.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 56 -
 Fig. 5.4 Egg (Stay) Insulators

(v) Suspension (Disc) Insulators

These insulators hang down from the cross arm of a pole; hence, the name. For each 11 kV, one
suspension insulator or disc (Fig. 5.5(a)) is, generally, used and, they can be joined with each other
for any working voltage through ball and socket joints. The whole combination, hanging downward,
is called a string. In the case of fault, the whole string need not be replaced; only the faulty piece is
replaced (Fig. 5.5(b)).

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.5 Suspension (Disc) Insulators

At the lower side, they have a valley type construction to increase the leakage path (Fig. 5.5(b)).

The string of suspension insulators is shown in Fig. 5.6. A Pictorial view is also shown in Fig. 5.7.

Fig. 5.6 String of Suspension Insulators

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 57 -
 Fig. 5.7 A Pictorial View of String Insulators

5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Suspension Insulators

Advantages

Suspension insulators have the following advantages over pin insulators:

1. Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators for voltages beyond 33 kV.
2. Each unit or disc of suspension type insulator is designed for low voltage, usually 11 kV.
Depending upon the working voltage, the desired number of discs can be connected in
series.
3. If anyone disc is damaged, the whole string does not become useless because the damaged
disc can be replaced.
4. The suspension arrangement provides greater flexibility to the line. The connection at the
cross arm is such that insulator string is free to swing in any direction and can take up the
position where mechanical stresses are minimum.
5. In case of increased demand on the transmission line, it is found more satisfactory to supply
the greater demand by raising the line voltage than to provide another set of conductors. The
additional insulation required for the raised voltage can be easily obtained in the suspension
arrangement by adding the desired number of discs.
6. The suspension type insulators are generally used with steel towers. As the conductors run
below the earthed cross-arm of the tower, therefore, this arrangement provides partial
protection from lightning.
7. The string is free to swing in any direction; it takes up a comfortable position of ‘tension’
itself.

Disadvantages

Their disadvantages vis-à-vis pin insulators are

(1) As they are hanged from the lower end of most cross arms, the height of the tower
increases.
(2) Large spacing between conductors is required. This increases the size of cross arms.

5.3 Potential Distribution over the String of Suspension Insulators

A string of suspension insulators consists of a number of porcelain discs in series through metallic
links. The porcelain (insulating material) of each disc is in between two metallic links. Thus, each
disc forms a capacitor.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 58 -
In addition to this, a shunt capacitance also exists as the metal fitting of each disc is separated by
air from the tower. This can be represented by CS. Due to the shunt capacitance, the charging current
is not the same through all discs. Therefore, voltage across each is also different (Fig. 5.7(a)).

The voltage nearest to the conductor will be maximum. The equivalent circuit of the string is shown
in Fig. 5.7(b).

C
I1 E1
i1
A
Cs
C
E2
I2
i2
B E
Cs

C
E3
I3
i3
C
Cs
Conductor
(b)

Fig. 5.7 Potential Distribution over the String of Suspension Insulators

5.4 String Efficiency

There is unequal voltage distribution over the whole sting (Fig. 5.7(b)). This is an undesirable
feature.

The ratio of the voltage (E) across the entire string to the product of the number (n) of discs and the
maximum voltage (E3) across the disc nearest to the conductor is known as string efficiency.

Voltage across the entire string E

String efficiency = x100% = 100%
numberof discsx max imum voltage nxE3

As the disc nearest to the conductor has the maximum voltage across it, it may be punctured.
Therefore, efforts are made to improve the efficiency, i.e.., to distribute the voltage equally on all
discs.

Let Cs= mC, where m is a constant (i)

1. Applying Kirchoff’s current law at node A, I2 = I1+ i1 (ii)

Voltage across capacitor Ec Ec

As current, I = = =
capacitive reac tan ce X c 1 / C
Re-writing equation (ii), we have:
E2.C = E1C+E1Cs
Or E2.C=E1C+E1mC

Or E2=E1(1+m) (iii)

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 59 -
2. Now , applying Kirchoff’s current law at node B,

I3 = I2+i2

Similarly, E3.C = E2C+(E1+E2)Cs

(The voltage across this shunt capacitor from the top is E1+E2 as its one point is connected to B and
the other point to the tower).

Or E3.C = E2C+(E1+E2)mC

Putting Cs= mC and dividing by C, we have

E3 = E2+(E1+E2)m = mE1+E2(1+m)

=mE1+E1(1+m)2 , (putting the value of E2 from eq.(iii))

=E1[m+(1+m)2]=E1(1+3m+m2) (iv)
3. The voltage between the conductor and the tower (earth) is

E = E1+E2+E3 = E1+E1(1+m)+E1(1+3m+m2) = E1(3+4m+m2)

Or E = E1(1+m)(3+m) (v)

From equations (iii), (iv) and (v), we get,

E1 E2 E3 E
= = = (vi)
1 1 + m 1 + 3m + m 2
(1 + m)(3 + m)

Since in this case the number of discs is 3,

E
 the string efficiency = x100 % (vii)
3E3

5.5 Improvement of String Efficiency

The string efficiency can be improved:
i) By keeping the value of m as small as possible;
ii) By keeping the number of discs (n) small.
Keeping these two points in mind, the string efficiency can be improved by the following methods:

(a) By using longer cross arms – By using longer cross arms, the value of the constant m decreases.
This increases efficiency. But this has limitation as longer arms will cost more. However, a small
value, i.e., m=0.1 is obtained by this method.
(b) By using a guard ring/shield – In this method, a metal ring, called guard ring or shield, is used,
which is electrically connected to the conductor and the shielding bottom disc. This introduces
another capacitance between the guard ring and the discs. This results in the same charging current
through all the discs, which leads to equal potential distribution and improvement in efficiency (Fig.
5.8).

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 60 -
 Cs C

Cg
Cs C
Cg
C

Conductor
Additional
capacitance
Additional
capacitance

Fig. 5.8

5.6 Characteristics of Line Insulators

The line insulators should have the following characteristics:
i) They must be mechanically strong;
ii) Their dielectric strength (breakdown voltage per mm) should be high
iii) They should be free from internal cracks or faults.
iv) They should not be porous and should not accumulate water, dust, dirt, etc., on their surface.
v) They should have a high safety factor which is written as:

puncture strength
Safety factor =
flashover voltage

5.7 Failure of Line Insulators

The following are the important causes of the failure of line insulators:
i) Cracking of insulators – Cracks may be produced inside the material of the insulator.
This is due to expansion and contraction of porcelain, cement, pin, etc., inside the
insulator. For this, the expansion coefficient of these materials should be low.
Sometimes, cushions are provided between the insulator and the pin to provide space
for expansion and contraction.
ii) Porosity – The porcelain should be baked at the proper temperature; otherwise, it will
remain porous and absorb moisture, which will lead to its failure.
iii) Improper glazing – If the upper surface of the insulator is not properly glazed, water,
dust, and dirt will be accumulated over it. Due to this, the flashover distance is reduced,
which causes failure of the insulator.
iv) Short circuit – If the spacing between the conductors is small, birds may short circuit by
sitting on them. This leads to the failure of insulators.
v) Flashover or puncture – This is the most important cause of failure of the insulators. The
flashover may occur between line conductors and the earth, i.e., the pin of the insulator.
The arc, so produced, will cause puncture of the insulator.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 61 -
5.8 Testing of Insulators
The insulators undergo some of following tests before they are used on line:
1. Flashover or design tests
2. Sample tests
3. Routine tests

(1) Flashover or design tests – Three of such tests are carried out:
(a) Dry test at power frequency (50 Hz) – In this test, a voltage is applied across the electrodes
of the insulator. The voltage is increased step by step till the surrounding air breaks down.
This is called the flashover voltage. The insulator should be capable of withstanding this
voltage for one minute.

(b) Wet test at power frequency (50 Hz) – In this test, the insulator is tested in rain (or an
artificial spray of water is made on the insulator). The insulator should withstand the
standard voltage, at least, for half a minute.

(c) Test at surge frequency – In this test, the insulator is tested to know whether it can withstand
lighting surges or not. The lightning voltage at several thousand cycles per second is
generated by a generator and applied across the insulator and the spark over voltage is noted.
The surge ratio is now calculated. This ratio should be about 1.5.

Note:- The surge ratio is the ratio between the sparkover voltage at surge frequency to the sparkover
voltage at power frequency (50 cy/s).

(2) Sample tests – The following tests are performed under this heading:
(a) Glaze test – For testing glaze, the insulator is heated in hot water at 70 0C, and, then, cooled
down for an hour. This is done, at least, 3 times. Then, it is dried. The glazing of the insulator
should not get damaged during this process.

(b) Porosity test – In this test, a recently fired insulator is broken into pieces and kept immersed
in 0.5 per cent alcohol solution for 24 hours. The porosity will be indicated by penetration
of the solution.

(c) Mechanical test – This test is performed for testing the mechanical strength of insulators.
For this, an insulator is mounted on a pin, and a load of about three times ofits normal
working load is applied for one minute. The insulator should be capable of bearing this load
without being damaged.

(3) Routine tests – This includes the following tests:

(a) Corrosion test – In this test, a completely assembled insulator is dipped into a copper
sulphate solution for one minute. This is done, at least, three times. There should be no
deposition of metal over it.
(b) High Voltage H.V. test – For this test, an insulator is inverted into water up to its neck.
Then, a high voltage is applied for five minutes. There should be no damage to the insulator.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 62 -
 CHAPTER 6
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM PLANNING

6.1 Introduction

An electrical power system can be considered to consist of a generation system, a transmission

system, a sub-transmission system and a distribution system. In general, the generation and
transmission systems are referred to as bulk power supply, and the sub-transmission and distribution
systems are considered to be the final means to transfer the electric power to the ultimate customer.
Bulk power transmission is made of high-voltage network, generally 128-765 kV alternating
current, designed to interconnect power plants and electrical utility systems and to transmit power
from the plants to major load centres. Table 7.1 gives the standard transmission voltages as dictated
by ANSI standard C-84 of the American National Standards Institute.

Table 7.1 Standard System Voltage Rating

Nominal (kV) Maximum (kV)

34.5 36.5
46 48.3
69 72.5
115 121
138 145
161 169
230 242
345 362
500 550
700 765

The sub transmission refers to a lower voltage network, normally 34.5-115 kV, interconnecting
bulk power and distribution substations. The voltages that are in the range of 345-765 kV are
classified as extra-high voltages (EHVs). The EHV systems dictate a very thorough system design.

6.2 Present Transmission System Planning Techniques

As aforementioned, the purpose of transmission system planning is to determine the timing and
type of new transmission facilities required in order to provide adequate transmission network
capability to cope with the future generating capacity additions and load flow requirements. Fig.
6.1 shows a functional block diagram of a typical transmission-system-planning process. This
process may be repeated, with diminishing detail, for each year of a long-range (15-20 years)
planning horizon. The key objective is to minimize the long-range capital and operating costs
involved in providing an adequate level of system reliability, with due consideration of
environmental and other relevant issues. Transmission planning may include not only existing but
also new service area. The starting point of the planning procedure is to develop load forecast in
terms of annual peak demand for the entire system as well as for each region and each major present
and future substation, and then finding specific alternatives that satisfy the new load conditions.
The system performance is tested under steady-state and contingency conditions.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 63 -
 Load
forecast

No Good System
Performance
Steady-state)
?
Feedback

Good System
No
Performance
(contingency) Feedback
?
Expand
Present
system Yes
Feedback

Design
Planning
New system
decision
configuration

No 15-20 year No
Yes Total Cost
expansion
acceptable
plan complete
?
?

Solution

Fig. 6.1 Functional Block Diagram of Typical Transmission System Planning Process

The logic diagram for transmission expansion study is shown in Fig. 6.2. The main objective is to
identify the potential problems in terms of unacceptable voltage conditions, overloading of
facilities, decreasing reliability, or any future of the transmission system to meet performance
criteria. After this analysis stage, the planner develops alternative plans or scenarios that not only
will prevent the foreseen problems but also will best meet the long-term objectives of system
reliability and economy. The effectiveness of the alternative plans is determined by load-flow
studies under both normal and emergency operations. The load-flow programs now in use by the
utilities allow the calculation of currents, voltages and real and reactive power flows, taking into
account the voltage-regulating capability of generators, transformers, synchronous condensers,
specified generation schedules as well as net interchange among interconnected systems,
automatically. By changing the location, size, and number of transmission lines, the planner can
achieve to design an economical system that meets the operating and design criteria.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 64 -
 Data

• Future load forecast

• Future generation
expansion plans
• Present network

Load- flow study

• Consider all generation and load patterns

• Pick out new lines
• Correct low voltages and overloads with new
sources and circuit additions

Short-circuit analysis Stability study

Assure proper network Analyze generator Feedback
operations under short- Stability of
circuit conditions system

Both fault
And stability No
Studies
Satisfactory
?

Yes

Planning Decision
Add all additions
to the network

Fig. 6.2 Logic Diagram for Transmission Expansion Study

After determining the best system configuration from load-flow studies, the planner studies the
system behaviour under fault conditions. The main objectives of short-circuit studies can be
expressed as:

1. To determine current-interrupting capacity of the circuit breaker so that the faulted

equipment can be disconnected successfully, therefore clearing the fault from the system
and

2. To establish the relay requirements and settings to detect the fault and cause the circuit
breaker to operate when the current flowing through it exceeds the maximum allowable
current.

The Short-circuit Studies can also be used to:

1. Calculate voltages during faulted conditions that affect insulation coordination and lighting
arrested application;
2. Design the grounding system;
3. Determine the electromechanical forces affecting the facilities of the system.

Finally, the planner performs stability studies in order to be sure that the system will remain stable
following a severe fault or disturbance. Here, the stability analysis is defined as the transient
behaviour of the power system following a disturbance. It can be classified as transient stability
analysis. The transient stability is defined as the ability of the system to maintain synchronous

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 65 -
operation following a disturbance, usually a fault condition unless the fault condition is cleared
rapidly by circuit breakers, the generators, which are connected to each other, through a
transmission network, will get out with respect to one another, that is, they will not run in
synchronism. This situation, in turn, will cause large currents to flow through the network,
transferring power from one generator to another in an oscillating way and causing the power
system to become unstable. Consequently, the protective relays will detect these excessive amounts
of currents and activate circuit breakers all over the network to open, causing a complete loss of
power supply.

There are various computer programs available for the planner to study the transient and steady-
state stabilities of the system. In general, a transient stability program employs the data, in terms of
initial voltages and power flows, provided by a load-flow program as the input and transforms the
system to that needed for the transient stability analysis. Usually, the critical switching time, that
is, the time during which a faulted system component must be tripped to assure stability, is used as
an indicator of stability margin. The critical switching times are calculated for various fault types
and locations. The resultant minimum required clearing time is compared to actual relay and circuit
breaker operating time. If the relays and circuit breakers cannot operate rapidly enough to maintain
stable operation, the planner may consider a change in the network design or a change in the turbine-
generator characteristics or perhaps control apparatus.

6.3 Models used in Transmission System Planning

In the past, the transmission system planning and design were rather intuitive and based
substantially on the planner’s past experience. Today, the planner has numerous analysis and
synthesis tools at his disposal.
These tools can be used for design and planning activities such as:

1. Transmission route identification and selection.

2. Transmission network expansion planning;
3. Network analysis and
4. Reliability analysis

6.4 Transmission System Planning in the Future

There are several economic factors that will have significant effects on transmission system
planning. The first of this is inflation. Fuelled by energy shortages, energy source conversion costs,
environmental concerns and large government deficits, inflation will continue to play a major role.
The second important economic factor will be the increasing expense of acquiring capital. As long
as inflation continues to decrease the real value of the dollar, attempts will be made by government
to reduce the money supply. This in turn, will increase the competition for attracting the capital
necessary for expansions in power systems. The third factor, which must be considered, is
increasing difficulty in increasing customer rates. This rate increase “inertia” also sterns in part
from inflation as well as from the results of customers being made more sensitive to rate increases
by consumer activist groups.

It is particularly important that, each transmission system design be as cost-effective as possible.

This means that, the system must be optimal from many points of view over the time period from
first day of operation to the planning time horizon. In addition to the accurate load growth estimates,
components must be phased in and out of the system so as to minimize capital expenditure, meet
performance goals and minimize losses.

In the utility industry, the most powerful force shaping the future is that of economics. Therefore,
any new innovation is not likely to be adopted for their own sake. These innovations will be adopted

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 66 -
only if they reduce the cost of some activity or provide something of economic value that previously
had been unavailable for comparable costs. In mending that, certain practices or tools will replace
current ones, it is necessary that one judge their acceptance on this basis.

The expected innovations that satisfy these criteria are planning tools implemented on a digital
computer that deals with transmission systems in network terms.

Summary
Future transmission systems will be more complex than those of today. This means that the
distribution system planner’s task will be more complex. If the systems being planned are to be
optimal with respect to construction cost capitalization, performance and operating efficiency,
better planning tools are required.

While it is impossible to foresee all of the effects that technology will have on the way which
transmission system planning will be done, it is possible to identify the major forces beginning to
institute a change in the methodology and extrapolate.

The most important single influence is that of the computer, which will permit the automating of
more and more of the planning activity. The automation will proceed along two major avenues.
First, increased application of operation research techniques will be made to meet performance
requirements in the most economical way. Secondly, improvements in data base technology will
permit the planner to utilize far more information in an automatic way than has been possible in the
recent past.

Interactive computer systems will display network configurations, cost information, device ratings,
etc., at the whim of the planner. Moreover, this information will be available to sophisticated
planning programs that will modify the database as new systems are designed and old ones are
modified.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 67 -
 CHAPTER 7
POWER SYSTEM RELIABILITY

7.1 Introduction

Interruptions in the supply of electricity to customers can occur at any hour of the day or night and
can last from fractions of a second to many hours or even days. Interruptions can be caused by
disturbances to or malfunctions of any of the three components of the power system: generation,
transmission or distribution. They can be caused by the unavailability of adequate resources to
supply the customer load. These two attributes of reliability are characterized by North American
Electricity Reliability Council (NERC) as security and adequacy.

Data show that over 90% of customer outages are caused by problems originating on the local
distribution system. Although generation and transmission related outages are less common than
those related to the distribution system, they often have much more serious consequences because
of the number of customers affected and the duration of the outage.

Disturbances can be initiated by:

a) External events such as:
➢ Environmental factors such as wind , rain, lightening, ice, fire, floods, earthquakes;
➢ Accidents such as cars hitting poles and
➢ Sabotage
b) Internal events such as:
➢ Insufficient capacity
➢ Failure of equipment due to electrical or mechanical stresses
➢ Operating errors or decisions

Lack of resources can be due to:

a) Insufficient generation caused by:
• Low(poor) load forecast
• Shortages of fuel due to supply disruptions or delivery/transportation problems
• Opposition to the construction of required new generating capacity
• Failure of equipment due to electrical or mechanical stress
• Poor planning
• Excessive maintenance outages
• Regulatory actions restricting the operations of power plants
• Transmission constraints
• Generation being retired because it is non-competitive in the new competitive market

b) Insufficient transmission or distribution caused by:

• Low (poor) load forecasts
• Opposition to the construction of required new transmission or distribution lines
• Failure of equipment due to electrical or mechanical stresses
• Poor planning
• Intentional outages required because of other infrastructure work, that is, the widening of
roads.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 68 -
7.2 Definition of Power System Reliability

The function of an electric power system is to satisfy the system load requirement with a reasonable
assurance of continuity and quality. The ability of the system to provide an adequate supply of
electrical energy is usually designated by the term of reliability. The concept of power-system
reliability is extremely broad and covers all aspects of the ability of the system to satisfy the
customer requirements. There is a reasonable subdivision of the concern designated as system
reliability”, which is shown in Fig. 7.1.

Fig. 7.1 Subdivision of System Reliability

Fig. 7.1 represents two basic aspects of a power system: system adequacy and security. Adequacy
relates to the existence of sufficient facilities within the system to satisfy the consumer load
demand. These include the facilities necessary to generate sufficient energy and the associated
transmission and distribution facilities required to transport the energy to the actual consumer load
points. Security relates to the ability of the system to respond to disturbances arising within that
system. Security is therefore associated with the response of the system to perturbations. Most of
the probabilistic techniques presently available for power-system reliability evaluation are in the
domain of adequacy assessment which cut across generation, transmission and distribution.

Generation

Generation adequacy standards are of two types:

(a) those covering the amount of installed generation capacity(reserve) and
(b) those covering the amount of operating generating capacity.

Generating capacity has traditionally been installed to meet a statistically determined reserve
requirement, that is, an amount of installed capacity over and above the expected peak load
obligation of the supplier. The amount of required reserve is related to a probably of loss of load.

For the operating reserve, there must at all times be sufficient generation synchronised to the grid
to meet the load requirements at that time and to be able to respond to short-term variations in
customer load, as well as to cover for the loss of another generator.

These reserves and this redundancy must cover both the real and reactive needs of the system. If
insufficient reactive is available, voltages on the system will decline and the system could suffer a
cascading power interruption which results in a complete blackout..

Another important consideration in the installed generation picture is the diversity of fuel supply.
Consistent with costs, a fuel diverse generation mix provides an additional level of reliability. As
examples, hydro systems are exposed to the impact of droughts; while coal and oil-fired systems

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 69 -
can be impacted by a number of disruptions including worker strikes, disruption in boat deliveries
of fuel, freezing of coal piles in the winter, etc.

7.3 Factors affecting Power System Reliability

Some of the major factors that affect power system reliability are:

(a) Reserve capacity- that is the capacity over and above that required to carry the system load.
Some of the categories of reserve are:

i) Spinning- that is, generating capacity within the system that is in excess of the actual
load and is capable of increasing generation immediately. The only limiting factor being
the quick response of the electrical machines.

ii) Quick start units that are off-line, such as gas turbines

iii) Interruptible loads. Some power sale contracts provide for the interruption of service to
some loads during emergency conditions. Such interruptible power is normally supplied
to the customer at reduced rates and may be considered as part of the reserve.

iv) Purchase reserve-Reserve capacity that is purchased from another interconnected system.
Such reserve can be spinning and immediately available or made available after a start-up
period.

v) Delayed reserves that can be made available after a time period. Such delays may be
matters of minutes or hours if for example, the start-up of a thermal unit that has been
shut-down for some time is required.

(b) Adequate transmission and station capability, that is, the load–carrying capacity of
transmission lines and stations is sufficient to carry their normal loads and with enough
overload capacity to carry additional loads that may be expected to occur. The amount of
overload to be provided is a management decision and could be affected by costs and the
importance of the load served in the area. For example, critical loads or loads in a metropolitan
area would justify greater efforts to ensure continuity of service than could be justified in a
rural area with a low load density.

(c) The ability to restart generation equipment

(d) Prompt disconnecting of faulted lines or equipment and restoration of facilities

(e) The ability to alter station arrangements to restore at least partial service by bus sectionalizing,
etc.

(f) The ability to operate equipment such as power circuit breakers without dependence on power
system energy. Station batteries, and in some cases tanks of compressed air are normally
provided for this purpose, so that circuit breakers can be operated even with the shut down,
and which could be required to reenergise a station after a complete interruption.

(g) The ability to provide alternative arrangements of lines or station equipment to restore power
promptly.

(h) Adequate and reliable interconnections with other systems.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 70 -
(i) Reliable indication of system conditions and communications with key generation and
transmission stations.

(j) Provisions for and the performance of maintenance to ensure that equipment will function
properly under all conditions.

Group Assignment:

1. Explain how the effect of temperature on the following electrical equipment affects power system
reliability:
a. Generator
b. Transformer
c. Transmission lines.

2. The impact of Transmission-line ratings (type of conductor, size, length) on system

reliability.

3. Reliability Analysis of the Distribution System in Tarkwa.

4. Planning and operating a reliable and adequate power system.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 71 -
 REFERENCES
Breeze, P. (2019), Power Generation Technologies, Newnes Publication, United States of America,
3rd Edition, 462 pp.

Subbanna, S. R. and Rao, B. L. (2019), Electric Power Transmission and Distribution, Notion
Press, Chennai, India, 324 pp.

Mousa, A. (2018), The Electric Power System: Generation, Transmission & Distribution Made
Simple, Lulu Publication, Morrisville, United States of America, 2nd Edition, 300 pp.

Sallam, A. A. and Malik, O. P. (2018), Electric Distribution Systems, Wiley-IEEE Press, Hoboken,
United States of America, 2nd Edition, 624 pp.

Grigsby, L. L. (2012), Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution, Third Edition,
CRC Press, 789 pp.

J. C. Attachie (2023), Course Material on Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept., UMaT, Tarkwa- 72 -