RESEARCH METHODOLOG

Bcom

Dr SURESH MANI
Department of Commerce

Principles of Economics
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Topic & Research

Design

UNIT II

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Selection and formulation of a research problem
Identification of problem

In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of selecting and properly
defining a research problem.*
A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so that it becomes susceptible to research.

Like a medical doctor, a researcher must examine all the symptoms

To define a problem correctly a researcher must know what a problem is?

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Selection and formulation of a research problem
Identification of problem

What is a Research Problem?

1.We can, thus, state the components1 of a research problem as under:
There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a
problem.

2.There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s) one
wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available to a researcher for if he
has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Selection and formulation of a research problem
Identification of problem

3.There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of
alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative efficiency
of the possible alternatives.

4.There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.

Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the
given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in
the context of a given environment.

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Selection and formulation of a research problem
Identification of problem

Example : “Why does the upper-middle class of Bangalore shop at Lifestyle during the diwali
season”?
Here all the above four aspects are covered.
We may be interested in a number of variables due to which shopping is done at a particular
place.The characteristic of interest to the researcher may be
1)Variety offered at lifestyle
2)Discount offered by way of promotion
3)Ambience at the lifestyle
4)Personalised service offered

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Selection and formulation of a research problem
SOURCES FOR PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Research students can adopt the following ways to identify the problems:
a) Research reports already published may be referred to define a specific problem.
b) Assistance of any research organisation, which handles a number of projects of the
companies, can be sought to identify the problem.
c) Professors working in reputed academic institution can act as guides in problem
identification
d) Company employees and competitors can assist in identifying the problems
e) Cultural and technological changes can act as a sources for research problem
identification
f) Seminars/symposiums/focus groups can act as a useful source
Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Selection and formulation of a research problem
BREAK

A researcher must be creative and should look at problems in a different perspective.

A client’s perspective of the problem is as under:

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OKBE
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OSE

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Selection and formulation of a research problem
Step in formulation of selected problem
In other words, defining a problem involves the task of laying down boundaries within
which a researcher shall study the problem with a pre-determined objective in view.
How to define a research problem is undoubtedly a herculean task. However, it is a task
that must be tackled intelligently to avoid the perplexity encountered in a research
operation.
The usual approach is that the researcher should himself pose a question (or in case
someone else wants the researcher to carry on research, the concerned individual,
organisation or an authority should pose the question to the researcher) and set-up
techniques and procedures for throwing light on the question concerned for

formulating or defining the research problem.

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Selection and formulation of a research problem
Step in formulation of selected problem

1.Statement of the problem in a general way:

First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some
practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must
immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem.

In case of social research, it is considered advisable to do some field observation and as such the
researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called pilot survey.

Then the researcher can himself state the problem or he can seek the guidance of the guide or
the subject expert in accomplishing this task.

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Selection and formulation of a research problem
Step in formulation of selected problem

2. Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to
understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it
with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with
what objectives in view.

For a better understanding of the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion
with those who have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other problems.

3.Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at hand must
necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given.

This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field,
reports and records as also all other relevant literature.

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Selection and formulation of a research problem
Step in formulation of selected problem

4.Developing the ideas through discussions:

Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. Hence ,a researcher must
discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area
or in working on similar problems
This is quite often known as an experience survey.

5.Rephrasing the research problem:

Finally the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. once
the nature of the problem has been clearly understand, the environment has been defined,
discussions over the problem have taken place and the available literature has been surveyed and
examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task.

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Selection and formulation of a research problem
Step in formulation of selected problem

AN ILLUSTRATION
The technique of defining a problem outlined above can be illustrated for better understanding by
taking an example as under:

Let us suppose that a research problem in a broad general way is as follows:

“Why is productivity in Japan so much higher than in India”?

In this form the question has a number of ambiguities such as: What sort of productivity is being
referred to? With what industries the same is related? With what period of time the productivity is
being talked about? In view of all such ambiguities the given statement or the question is much too
general to be amenable to analysis.

Rethinking and discussions about the problem may result in narrowing down the question to:

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Selection and formulation of a research problem
Step in formulation of selected problem

“What factors were responsible for the higher labour productivity of Japan’s manufacturing
industries during the decade 1971 to 1980 relative to India’s manufacturing industries?”

This latter version of the problem is definitely an improvement over its earlier version for
the various ambiguities have been removed to the extent possible.

Further rethinking and rephrasing might place the problem on a still better operational basis as
shown below:
1.“To what extent did labour productivity in 1971 to 1980 in Japan exceed that of India in respect
of 15 selected manufacturing industries?

2.What factors were responsible for the productivity differentials between the two countries by
industries?”

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Selection and formulation of a research problem
Step in formulation of selected problem

With this sort of formulation, the various terms involved such as ‘labour productivity’, ‘productivity
differentials’, etc. must be explained clearly.

The researcher must also see that the necessary data are available.

In case the data for one or more industries selected are not available for the concerning time-
period, then the said industry or industries will have to be substituted by other industry or
industries.

The suitability of the time-period must also be examined. Thus, all relevant factors must be
considered by a researcher before finally defining a research problem.

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design

Research design is simply a plan for a study. This is used as a guide in collecting and analysing the
data. It can be called a blue print to carry out the study. It is like a plan made by an architect to build
the house, if a research is conducted without a blue print, the result is likely to be different from
what is expected at the start.

Definition
A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so conceived as to obtain
answers to research questions or problems. The plan is the complete scheme or programme of
the research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypotheses
and their operational implications to the final analysis of data. (Kerlinger 1986: 279)

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Design

A traditional research design is a blueprint or detailed plan for how a research study is to
be completed—operationalizing variables so they can be measured, selecting a sample of
interest to study, collecting data to be used as a basis for testing hypotheses, and
analysing the results. (Thyer 1993: 94)

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Need /Purpose of Research Design

1.Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.

2.Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the
relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the
research and the availability of staff, time and money.

3.Even then the need for a well thought out research design is at times not realised by many. The
importance which this problem deserves is not given to it. As a result many researches do not
serve the purpose for which they are undertaken. In fact, they may even give misleading
conclusions.

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Need /Purpose of Research Design

A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the
consideration of the following factors:
the means of obtaining information;
the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
the objective of the problem to be studied;
the nature of the problem to be studied; and
the availability of time and money for the research work.

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

VARIABLE is anything that can take on differing or varying values. The values can differ at various
times for the same object or person or at the same time for different objects or persons.
Example of variables are production units, absenteeism and motivation.

1)Dependent Variable
• The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher.
• It is the main variable that lends itself for investigation
The dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in an experiment, and is
'dependent' on the independent variable. An example of a dependent variable is depression
symptoms, which depends on the independent variable (type of therapy).

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Selection and formulation of a research problem
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

For Example A manager is concerned that the sales of a new product, introduced after test
marketing it, do not meet with his expectations. The dependent variable here is ‘sales’. Since the
sales of the product can vary –they can be low, medium or high-it is a variable, since sales is the
main focus of interest to the manager ,it is the dependent variable.

2)Independent Variable
The independent variable is the variable the experimenter manipulates or changes, and is assumed
to have a direct effect on the dependent variable. For example, allocating participants to either drug
or placebo conditions (independent variable) in order to measure any changes in the intensity of
their anxiety (dependent variable).

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

3.Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but
may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher
wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s gains in social studies
achievement and their self-concepts.

An extraneous variable is any variable that you're not investigating that can potentially affect the
dependent variable of your research study

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

In this case self-concept is an independent variable and social studies achievement is a dependent
variable.

Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the
purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable.

4.Confounding Variable
A confounding variable is a type of extraneous variable that not only affects the dependent variable,
but is also related to the independent variable.

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

5.Control: One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimise the influence or
effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study
minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables. In experimental researches, the term
‘control’ is used to refer to restrain experimental conditions.

6.Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said
to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).

7.Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by

scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive
statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable.
Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one dependent variable.
Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or the relationships that are assumed
but not to be tested, are not termed research hypotheses.
Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

8.Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem, is known as an experiment. For example, we can conduct an experiment to
examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug.

Experiments can be of two types viz., absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If we
want to determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute
experiment; but if we want to determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the impact of
some other fertilizer, our experiment then will be termed as a comparative experiment.

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

TYPE OF RESEARCH DESIGN

1.Exploratory or Formulative Design:

Exploratory research often relies on qualitative approaches to data gathering such as informal
discussions(with consumers,employees,managers),interviews,focus groups and or case studies)
The main purpose of exploratory study is to gather information which will help in future for
formulation of a precise research problem. On the basis of the collected facts the researcher may be
able to formulate sound hypotheses for further research.

It may also enable the researcher to get himself acquainted with the phenomena which he expects
to investigate at a later stage. The aim of an exploratory or formulative study may be clarification of
concepts, establishing priorities for future research and collection of data about the actual
conditions which affect an intended research.

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

TYPE OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Example:
The manager of a multinational corporation is curious to know if the work ethic values of employees
working in its subsidiary in Pennathur City are different from those of Americans.There is very little
information about Pennathur(except that it is a small city in Southern India) and since there is
considerable controversy about what work ethics values mean to people in other cultures,the
manager’s curiosity can be satisfied only an exploratory study,interviewing the employees in
organisations in Pennathur.

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

TYPE OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Requirement of Exploratory Design:

The essentials for exploratory or formulative design are:
(a) Review of pertinent literature
(b) Experience Survey
(c) Analysis of Insight Stimulating cases.

2.Descriptive Research Design:

The purpose of descriptive type of design is to describe some event, situation, people, group or
community or some phenomena. Fundamentally, it is a fact finding exercise which focuses on
relatively far dimensions of a well defined entity, aiming at precise and systematic measurement
of some dimensions of a phenomenon.

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

TYPE OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Usually a descriptive design involves detailed numerical descriptions, such as distribution of the
population of a community by age, sex, caste or education. The researcher may also take recourse
to descriptive design for estimating the proportion of people in a particular geographical locality
in respect of their specific views or attitudes.
Example
A bank manager wants to have a profile of the individuals who have loan payments outstanding
for six months and more.The profile will include details of their average age,earnings,nature of
occupation,full-time/part time employment status and the like.This might help to elicit further
information or decide right away on the types of individuals who should be made ineligible for
loans in the future.

3. Diagnostic Research Design:

Being concerned with the express characteristics and existing social problems, the diagnostic
research design endeavors to find out relationship between express causes and also suggests
ways and means for the solution.
Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

TYPE OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Diagnostic studies are mostly motivated by hypotheses. A primary description of a problem

serves the basis so as to relate the hypotheses with the source of the problem and only those
data which form and corroborate the hypotheses are collected.

Diagnostic studies seek immediate to timely solution of the causal elements. The researcher,
before going through other references, endeavors to remove and solve the factors and the causes
responsible for giving rise to the problem.

The research design of diagnostic studies demands strict adherence to objectivity for elimination
of any chances of personal bias or prejudice. Utmost care is taken while taking decisions regarding
the variables, nature of observation to be made in the field, the type of evidence to be collected
and tools of data collection.

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

TYPE OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Usually the first step in such designing is accurate formulation of research problem wherein
research objectives are precisely stated and principal areas of investigation are properly linked.

At the next stage certain decisions regarding collection of data are taken. In this regard, the
researcher should always bear in mind the advantages and disadvantages of the method to be
employed and at the same time the nature of research problem, type of data needed, degree of
desired accuracy etc. should be considered

In order to surmount the financial constraints, paucity of time, a representative sample of the
research universe should be drawn so as to gather relevant information. A wide range of sampling
techniques is prevalent which must be made use of, appropriately by the researchers.

At the stage of analysis of data, the researcher must take proper care in placing each item in the
appropriate category, tabulating of data, applying statistical computations and so on.

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

TYPE OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Experimental Design:
The concept of experimental design in sociological research refers to systematic study of human
relations by making the observations under conditions of control. In the words of Jahoda and
Cook, ‘an experiment maybe considered as a way of organizing the collection of evidence so as to
permit one to make inference about the tenability of a hypothesis.

According to Chapin, “experiment is simply observation under controlled conditions. When

observation alone fails to disclose the factors that operate in a given problem, it is necessary for
the scientist to resort to experiment.”

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

TYPE OF RESEARCH DESIGN

The core of the experimental method lies in drawing inferences by observation of human
relations under controlled conditions. Since a number of factors are in operation in every complex
social situation, the social scientist, while seeking to describe the single causal relation of factor A
to factor B, must attempt to create an artificial situation wherein all other factors, such as C, D, E
etc., are controlled.

Such a state is achieved by selecting two groups which are equal in all significant receipts and
choosing either of the groups as experimental group, and the other as the ‘control group’, and

thereafter exposing the ‘experimental group’ to the assumed causal variable, while keeping the
‘control’ group under control. After a specific time period, the two groups are compared in terms
of the ‘assumed effect’.

Research Methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

TYPE OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Experimental design enables the researcher to draw causal inferences. It also smoothens, the
observation of independent variable causing assumed effect.
The three components of experimental design are: comparison, manipulation, and control.

Types of Experimental Design:

There are numerous ways in which experiments can be done in the field of social sciences. In their
work “Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs of Research on Teaching”, Donald T. Cambell
and Julian C. Stanley have mentioned more than a hundred ways of conducting experiments
which may be designated as experimental design.

Research Methodology
THANK YOU

Dr Suresh Mani
Department of Commerce
sureshm@pes.edu

Managerial Economics
Research Methodology

Dr. S.Sumathi,
Professor / FoMC,
PESU - EC.
How Tata Motors is breaking the silence of EVs, and making them roar instead

https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/prime/transportation/how-tata-
motors-is-breaking-the-silence-of-evs-and-making-them-roar
instead/primearticleshow/112886481.cms
“Silence speaks louder than words.” -Thomas Carlyle Not if it is an electric
vehicle (EV). In fact, EVs are so silent that they often catch pedestrians and
cyclists unawares, potentially creating safety hazards. Home-grown Tata
Motors wants to solve this by making the EVs audible. On August 7, Tata
Motors launched the Curvv EV, a pure electric SUV coupe. What makes the
vehicle unique is the acoustic vehicle alert system (AVAS).
• Which of the following is NOT a component of a research problem?
• a) The presence of an individual or group with a difficulty
b) The existence of multiple alternatives for achieving the objectives
c) The selection of alternatives
d) An environment to which the difficulty pertains

stock and commodity market

c) The selection of alternatives

stock and commodity market

•
What is a dependent variable?
• a) The variable manipulated by the researcher
b) The variable that is measured and tested in an experiment
c) A variable that remains constant
d) A variable that is always numeric

stock and commodity market

• Answer: b) The variable that is measured and tested in an experiment

stock and commodity market

• Which of the following methods is NOT suggested for identifying a
research problem?
• a) Referring to published research reports
b) Conducting experiments
c) Seeking assistance from research organizations
d) Attending seminars and focus groups

stock and commodity market

• Answer: b) Conducting experiments

stock and commodity market

• What is the purpose of rephrasing the research problem?
• a) To complicate the research process
b) To make the research problem more broad
c) To convert it into a working proposition
d) To eliminate the need for data collection

stock and commodity market

• Answer: c) To convert it into a working proposition

stock and commodity market

Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Need, Purpose & Note Taking

Definition:
A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on
a topic. The literature review surveys scholarly articles, books, and other
sources relevant to a particular area of research.

The review should enumerate, describe, summarize,

objectively evaluate and clarify this previous research. It should
give a theoretical base for the research and help you (the author)
determine the nature of your research. The literature review
acknowledges the work of previous researchers, and in so doing,
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Need, Purpose & Note Taking

Literature review purpose:

 understanding of the existing research
 build your knowledge
 learn about important concepts, research methods, and
experimental techniques
 understanding of how research findings are presented
 more successful at writing for your discipline.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Need, Purpose & Note Taking
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Need, Purpose & Note Taking
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Need, Purpose & Note Taking
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Need, Purpose & Note Taking
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Need, Purpose & Note Taking
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Need, Purpose & Note Taking
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Need, Purpose & Note Taking

How to get your literature review published?

• Use a good research methodology that fills the quality criteria for conducting
literature reviews.

• Features or analyses can also be added to make the review paper more likely to stand out.

• Take examples of articles that have been successfully published in higher-ranked

business journals using a literature review strategy as a basis.

• To conduct a literature review and combine it with a meta-analysis (Meta analysis is a

statistical process of analyzing & combining results from several similar studies)of a relevant
topic to provide some evidence of effect.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Need, Purpose & Note Taking

How to get your literature review published?

• Focus on a topic that is relevant, is interesting and solves some type of research
dilemma, thereby advancing the knowledge in the field.

• Reviews that build on computer-based text analysis & machine learning have been
receiving increased interest in business research.

• Well-executed literature review that provides a new theory or includes a well-

grounded substantial research agenda or propositions on which other researchers
can build to advance the field
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Need, Purpose & Note Taking

Note Taking:
One way to begin taking notes is to keep track of what you are searching for.
Many databases help you do this by allowing you to save searches. Saving searches allows
you to watch the development of your search over time and to make sure you are not
simply repeating the same search over and over.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Need, Purpose & Note Taking

•Why take notes?

• Identify and remember key points
•Help recall and concentration
•Use in research and writing NOTE TAKING TABLE

•See connections between sources

•Avoid plagiarism
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Research Gap Identification:

Definition:
A research gap is a question or a problem that has not been
answered by any of the existing studies or research within your field.
Sometimes, a research gap exists when there is a concept or new idea
that hasn't been studied at all. Sometimes you'll find a research gap if
all the existing research is outdated and in need of new/updated
research Or, perhaps a specific population has not been well
studied.
 Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Research Gap Identification:
The Seven Types of Research Gaps:
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Research Gap Identification:

1. Evidence Gap
This gap involves contradictions in the findings of the prior
research. It occurs if results from studies allow for conclusions in
their own right, but are contradictory when examined from a
more abstract point of view. The identification of contradictory
evidence starts with analyzing each research stream. Subsequently,
the results from these analyses need to be synthesized in order
to reveal contradictory evidence.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Research Gap Identification:

2. Knowledge Gap
The knowledge gap is a common gap in the prior
research. There are two settings where a knowledge gap
(knowledge void) might occur.
i. knowledge may not exist in the actual field to theories
and literature from related research domains.
ii. It might be the case that results of a study differs from
what was expected
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Research Gap Identification:

3. Practical-Knowledge Gap

This kind of gap tends to be a discrepancy that can

motivate new research in this direction. A practical
knowledge (action-knowledge) conflict arises when the actual
behavior of professionals is different from their advocated
behavior. In this case, research could seek to determine the
scope of the conflict and to uncover the reasons for its
existence.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Research Gap Identification:

4. Methodological Gap
A methodological gap is the type of gap that deals with the conflict
that occurs due to the influence of methodology on research
results. This gap addresses the conflicts with the research methods in
the prior studies and offers a methods. It is noted that it might be useful to
vary research methods, especially new line of research that is
divergent from those research if certain research topics have been
mainly explored using a singular.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Research Gap Identification:

5. Empirical Gap
An empirical gap is the type of gap that deals with gaps in the prior research.
This conflict deals with the research findings or propositions need to be evaluated or
empirically verified.
6. Population Gap
A population gap is a common gap recognized among researchers. There are
always under-served populations that have been under-researched. This gap is the
type of research regarding the population that is not adequately represented or under
- researched, in the evidence base or prior research (e.g., gender, race/ethnicity, age
and etc.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Research Gap Identification:

7. Theoretical Gap
The theoretical gap is the type of gap that deals with the gaps in theory
with the prior research. For example, if one phenomenon is being explained
through various theoretical models, similar to a methodological gap conflict,
there might be a theoretical conflict. Researchers and scholars could examine
whether one of those theories is superior in terms of the gap in the prior research.
Theoretical gaps are a common occurrence in examining prior research on a
phenomenon
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Research Gap Identification:
Modi govt approves 12 new industrial smart cities -
Cabinet briefing by Ashwini Vaishnaw

https://www.youtube.com/live/
3dNCb9HzQdY?feature=shared
The union cabinet on Wednesday
(29.08.2024)approved 12 new industrial
smart cities in different states with an
outlay of Rs 28,602 crore to boost
domestic manufacturing, said Union
Minister Ashwini Vaishnaw while briefing
the media on the cabinet decisions. Watch
the video for more details.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Variables in Research: Introduction, Meaning,
Types
Variables in Research
In practice, the term variable is used as a synonym for construct, or
the property being studied. In this context, a variable is a symbol of an
event, act, characteristic, trait, or attribute that can be measured and to
which we assign values. Some primary types of variables include:
1. Independent Variable
2. Dependent Variable
3. Mediating variable
4. Moderating variable
5. Extraneous variable
6. Intervening variable
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Variables in Research: Introduction, Meaning, Types

Variables in Research
Types of variables include:
1. Independent Variable: This is a variable that is manipulated or
varied in an experiment to observe its effect on another variable.
It is called independent because its variation does not depend on the
value of any other variable. For example, in a study about the effect of
sleep on memory, sleep would be the independent variable because
the researcher manipulates the amount of sleep the participants get,
to observe its effect on their memory.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Variables in Research: Introduction, Meaning, Types

Variables in Research
Types of variables include:
2. Dependent Variable
This is a variable that is measured or observed in an experiment
to see how it is affected by the independent variable. It is called
dependent because its value depends on the value of the independent
variable. For example, in a study about the effect of sleep on memory,
memory would be the dependent variable because the researcher
measures the participants' memory to see how it is affected by the
amount of sleep they get.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Variables in Research: Introduction, Meaning, Types

Variables in Research
Types of variables include:
3. Mediating variable
Mediating variables, on the other hand, explains how or why the
relationship between an independent variable and a dependent
variable exists. They represent the underlying mechanism that
connects the independent and dependent variables. For example, in a
study about the effect of sleep on memory, neurotransmitter function
could be a mediating variable because it explains how sleep affects
memory by influencing the function of neurotransmitters in the brain.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Variables in Research: Introduction, Meaning, Types

Variables in Research
Types of variables include:
4. Moderating variable
Moderating variables are factors that change the strength or
direction of the relationship between an independent variable and a
dependent variable. In other words, they modify the effect of the
independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, in a
study about the effect of sleep on memory, age could be a moderating
variable because the relationship between sleep and memory might be
different for younger and older adults.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Variables in Research: Introduction, Meaning, Types

Variables in Research
Types of variables include:
5. Extraneous variable
This is a variable that could affect the results of an experiment,
but is not the focus of the study. It is a variable that is not part of the
independent and dependent variables, but could still have an impact on
the results. For example, in a study of the effect of sleep on memory,
stress could be an extraneous variable because it could affect both
sleep and memory, but is not the focus of the study.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Variables in Research: Introduction, Meaning, Types

Variables in Research
Types of variables include:
6. Intervening variable
This is a variable that lies between the independent and dependent
variables and helps to explain the mechanism of their relationship.
It is similar to a mediating variable, but is typically used in more
complex models to explain how multiple variables are related. For
example, in a study of the effect of sleep on memory, attention could
be an intervening variable because it explains how sleep affects
memory by influencing attention, which in turn affects memory.
Bangladesh is just one reason, there is more to it: 4
garment makers with an upside potential of up to 34%

https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/recos/bangladesh-is-
just-one-reason-there-is-more-to-it-4-garment-makers-with-an-upside-
potential-of-up-to-34/articleshow/112865406.cms
After the recent political development in Bangladesh, there has been talks
of how that will impact the Indian textile industry. Now that is where we
need to understand that any development in Bangladesh, impacts one
segment of a very broad textile industry. Which is a garment
manufacturer’s who cater to the local market with some brands and also
are into exports to US retail or work as contract manufacture for global
brands present in India. The essential hope is that due to turmoil, the
buyers, which are largely US retail chains, would give more orders to Indian
companies so that they are sure of delivery at the time of holiday season.
But there is another part of the story, which is that some of the Indian
companies also have their units in Bangladesh and there could be some
disruption so it would be better to be selective when picking stock just on
 Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Research Designs

 The choice of design typically depends on your research questions and topics, as well as
your purpose.
 If your purpose is to explain, measure, and/or prove a link between two different things
(e.g. diet and obesity), quantitative data would probably be more appropriate.
Examples of quantitative data topics :
 A company’s profitability
 A comparison of primary school children’s reading marks and family background
 How many newspaper articles mention immigration in a given period
 The frequency of particular personality types e.g. introversion
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Research Designs

•1. Quantitative Research Design

Quantitative data is numbers and statistics.
• With a good quantitative design, you can make general
statements about what is likely to be true overall.
A drawback can be a lack of depth (e.g. reasons why,
context, emotions or feelings). Also, it requires mathematical
and/or statistical knowledge to be able to analyse the data
effectively.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Research Designs
1. Quantitative Research Design:
a) Descriptive statistics (bar graphs, pie charts, etc.) are useful to present the data and
inform the reader, but they are not usually adequate analytical methods. These only
describes your sample.
b) Inferential statistics are used to explain or demonstrate hypotheses in the overall
population. Your research design needs to consider what statistical analyses will be
performed from the beginning. You need to know at the outset what type of data you
will be collecting. For example, if you are collecting data on sickness at work, you
could collect this as a ‘yes/no’ type question (e.g. have you been off sick in the last
month) or as a scale (e.g. how many days have you been off sick). So the data that you
need affects the questions that you ask.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Research Designs

 If your purpose is to explore, illustrate, and/or give rich and detailed information
about particular instances, you are probably going to prefer qualitative data.
Examples of qualitative data topics:
 Consumer perceptions of a company or brand
 Parents’ feelings and habits about reading to their children
 Nurses’ knowledge and opinions of infection prevention protocols
 How newspaper articles describe and represent immigrants
 How introverts think of themselves

Note that all of these topics are much too vague to be really good dissertation or research
article titles; they need to be more focused in reality.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Research Designs

2. Qualitative Research Design

Qualitative research includes an “array of interpretive techniques which seek to describe,
decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not the frequency, of
certain more or less naturally occurring phenomena in the social world.”
Qualitative research is designed to tell the researcher how (process) and why (meaning)
things happen as they do.
 Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Research
Designs

Qualitative Research Design

The advantage is that you get lots of detail about specific cases, people or group. The
disadvantages are that you can’t make general statements, and that analysis is time
consuming. Some would argue that the analysis is also very subjective, but this depends
on your approach
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Research Designs

3. Mixed Research Design:

Mixed method research design is a type of research design that combines both
qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Mixed methods research is the type of research in which a researcher or team of
researchers combines elements of qualitative & quantitative research approaches (eg. Use of
quantitative & qualitative view points, data collection, analysis, inference techniques) for
the broad purposes of breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration.
This type of research design allows for the collection of data from multiple sources and
through different methods, providing a more comprehensive understanding of a particular
research problem or topic.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Research Designs

3. Mixed Research Design:

Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Research Designs
Purposes for mixing in mixed methods research: ( Greene et al. (1989, p. 259)
1. Triangulation seeks convergence, corroboration, correspondence of results from
different methods;
2. Complementarity seeks elaboration, enhancement, illustration, clarification of the
results from one method with the results from the other method;
3. Development seeks to use the results from one method to help develop or inform the other
method, where development is broadly construed to include sampling and
implementation, as well as measurement decisions;
4. Initiation seeks the discovery of paradox & contradiction, new perspectives of
frameworks, the recasting of questions or results from one method with questions or results
from the other method;
5. Expansion seeks to extend the breadth and range of inquiry by using different methods
for different inquiry components.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Research Designs
(Bryman, 2006)
1. Credibility refers to suggestions that employing both approaches enhances the
integrity of findings.
2. Context refers to cases in which the combination is justified in terms of qualitative
research providing contextual understanding coupled with either generalizable,
externally valid findings or broad relationships among variables uncovered through a
survey.
3. Illustration refers to the use of qualitative data to illustrate quantitative findings,
often referred to as putting “meat on the bones” of “dry” quantitative findings.

4. Utility or improving the usefulness of findings refers to a suggestion, which is more

likely to be prominent among articles with an applied focus, that combining the two
approaches will be more useful to practitioners and others.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Research Designs

5. Confirm and discover this entails using qualitative data to generate hypotheses and
using quantitative research to test them within a single project.
6. Diversity of views this includes two slightly different rationales – namely, combining
researchers’ and participants’ perspectives through quantitative and qualitative
research respectively, and uncovering relationships between variables through quantitative
research while also revealing meanings among research participants through qualitative
research.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Types
1.Systematic Review:
• A systematic review attempts to identify, appraise and synthesize all
the empirical evidence that meets pre-specified eligibility criteria to
answer a given research question. Researchers conducting systematic
reviews use explicit methods aimed at minimizing bias in order to
produce more reliable findings that can be used to inform decision
making.
• An essential step in the early development of a systematic review is the
development of a review protocol. A protocol pre-defines the objectives
and methods of the systematic review which allows transparency of the
process. It must be done prior to conducting the systematic review as it
is important in restricting the presence of reporting bias. The protocol is
a completely separate document to the systematic review report.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Types

In summary, a systematic review:

• Addresses a specific question
• Uses specified methodology
• Assesses quality of the literature
• Requires a team and long term commitment
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Types
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Types

2.Scoping review
• "Scoping reviews, a type of knowledge synthesis, follow a systematic
approach to map evidence on a topic and identify main concepts,
theories, sources, and knowledge gaps."
• "Scoping reviews conducted as precursors to systematic reviews may
enable authors to identify the nature of a broad field of evidence so that
ensuing reviews can be assured of locating adequate numbers of
relevant studies for inclusion."
• A scoping review may be undertaken as a preliminary exercise prior to
the conduct of a systematic review, or as a stand alone review.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Types

• A scoping review may be used:

 As a precursor to a systematic review.
 To identify the types of available evidence in a given field.
 To identify and analyse knowledge gaps.
 To clarify key concepts/ definitions in the literature.
 To examine how research is conducted on a certain topic or field.
 To identify key characteristics or factors related to a concept.
• Reporting:
The PRISMA extension for scoping reviews was published in 2018. The
checklist contains 20 essential reporting items and 2 optional items to
include when completing a scoping review. Scoping reviews serve to
synthesize evidence and assess the scope of literature on a topic. Among
other objectives, scoping reviews help determine whether a systematic
review of the literature is warranted.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Types

3. Rapid Review
• The Cochrane Rapid Reviews Methods Group has proposed the following
definition: “A form of knowledge synthesis that accelerates the process of
conducting a traditional systematic review through streamlining or omitting specific
methods to produce evidence for stakeholders in a resource-efficient manner.”
• Rapid reviews are usually undertaken when decision makers have urgent and
emerging needs which require evidence produced on a short time frame. Typically,
to compensate for the short time frame of a rapid review, methodological rigor may
be sacrificed. For example, the grey literature may not be sought and preference
may be given to the more readily available research published and written in
English.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Types

• A rapid review follows most of the principle steps of a systematic review, using
systematic and transparent methods to identify, select, critically appraise and
analyze data from relevant research. However, to provide timely evidence, some of
the components of a systematic review process are either simplified or omitted.
There are various approaches for simplifying the review components, such as by
reducing the number of databases, assigning a single reviewer in each step while
another reviewer verifies the results, excluding or limiting the use of grey literature,
or by narrowing the scope of the review. In general, a rapid review takes about four
months or less.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Types

4. Narrative Review:
• A traditional literature review or narrative review examines and evaluates
the scholarly literature on a topic. Literature reviews often do not answer
one specific question, rather they usually bring together a summary of the
literature in a qualitative manner.
• A literature review may be undertaken in a systematic way in order to be
comprehensive, without being a systematic review. It is important to
recognise the differences between the two and determine which type of
review is best suited to your needs - or whether one of the other reviews
detailed here is more applicable.

Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Types

• Narrative reviews -
 provide a (generally qualitative) summary of the relevant literature, as
determined by the author.
 do not necessarily provide an analysis of the literature or its quality.
 usually do not include a description of the methodology of the search
process.
 refer to key journal literature without going into the grey literature.
 don't always answer a specific research question.
 are not protocol driven.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Types

5. Umbrella reviews
• They are sometimes referred to as a "review of reviews". They are an
attempt to identify and appraise, extract and summarise all the
evidence from research syntheses related to a topic or question.
• Umbrella reviews may:
 Include analyses of different interventions for the same problem or
condition.
 Analyse the same intervention and condition, but different outcomes.
 Analyse the same intervention but different conditions, problems or
populations.
• Umbrella reviews offer the possibility to address a broad scope of issues
related to the topic of interest.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Types

• In summary, an umbrella review:

 Is a systematic review of systematic reviews
 Synthesizes systematic reviews of the same topic
 Assesses scope and quality of individual systematic reviews
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Types
6. Meta Review
Often, systematic reviews include a meta-analysis component which
involves using statistical techniques to synthesize the data from several
studies into a single quantitative estimate or summary effect size.

Example of Meta:
Examples of meta are often found in fine arts, with, say, paintings of
paintings or photographs of photographers. Popular culture has also gone
meta, with cartoons showing their self-awareness as cartoons or films
mocking the tropes of film. The ironic, self-parodying culture of the internet
makes it a hotbed for meta.
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design:
Review of Literature: Types

Real Example of Meta Analysis:

The subjects from all eight studies (total: 860 subjects) were pooled and
statistically analyzed to determine the effect of the relationship between
wearing sunscreen and melanoma. This meta-analysis showed a 50%
reduction in melanoma diagnosis among sunscreen-wearers.
 Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Research
Designs

Case study: Summary of Roth (2006), 'research regarding the gender - wage gap within Wall
Street securities firms'. Adapted from Hesse-Biber (2010, pp. 457–458) Louise Marie Roth’s
research, Selling Women Short: Gender and Money on Wall Street tackles gender inequality in
the workplace

Objectives: She was interested in understanding the gender-wage gap among highly performing
Wall Street MBAs, who on the surface appeared to have the same “human capital” qualifications
and were placed in high - ranking Wall Street securities firms as their first jobs. In addition, Roth
wanted to understand the “structural factors” within the workplace setting that may contribute to
the gender-wage gap and its persistence over time.

Data Analysis: Roth conducted semi structured interviews, nesting quantitative closed-ended
questions into primarily qualitative in-depth interviews
Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design
2.8 Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Research
Designs
Findings
 In analyzing the quantitative data from her sample, she statistically
considered all those factors that might legitimately account for gendered
differences such as number of hours worked, any human capital
differences, and so on.

 Her analysis of the quantitative data revealed the presence of a significant

gender gap in wages that remained unexplained after controlling for any
legitimate factors that might otherwise make a difference.

 Quantitative findings showed the extent of the wage gap while providing
numerical understanding of the disparity but did not provide her with an
understanding of the specific processes within the workplace that might
have contributed to the gender gap in wages.

 Her respondents’ lived experiences over time revealed the hidden inner
Unit 1: Introduction to Research 15 Hours
Introduction to Research: Meaning, Features, Aims, Motivation in Research, Types
(Including Quantitative and Qualitative Methods), Importance, Process, Approaches,
Essentials of Good Research. Empiricism, Deductive and Inductive Theory. Ethics in
Research and Publication: Falsification Fabrication & Plagiarism (FFP), Software for
Detection of Plagiarism, Problems encountered by researchers in India.

Unit 2: Research Topic & Research Design 15 Hours

Selecting a Topic for Research, Types of Research Problems in Social Science,
Components & Sources of Research Problem, Formulating the Research Problem.
Review of Literature: Need, Purpose & Note Taking, Narrative, Systematic, Meta and
Scoping Reviews and Research Gap Identification. Introduction to Research Design:
Meaning, Need & Importance, Types & Uses of Research Design. Features of Good
Research Design, Types of Research Design – Concept, Pros & Cons. Qualitative,
Quantitative and Mixed Research Designs, Variables in Research: Introduction, Meaning
and Types.
Unit 3: Scales of Measurement & Data Processing 15 Hours
Scales of Measurement: Types of Data Measurement Scale, Techniques of Data Scaling, Goodness of
Measurement Scales, Deciding the Scale, Validating the Scale. Data Processing: Processing and
Distribution - Field Work Validation - Tabulation - Editing - Coding - Classification and Tabulation of Data -
Presentation - Graphical Representation. Sources of Data: Primary and Secondary Sources – Qualitative
and Quantitative Methods of Data Collection, Constructing Questionnaire-Reliability and Validity:
Meaning, Types, Standardized Questionnaire, Questionnaire v/s Schedules

Unit 4: Sampling, Hypothesis and Data Analysis & Report Writing 15 Hours
Introduction to Sampling: Concepts of Population, Sample, Sampling Frame, Sampling Error, Sample Size,
Characteristics of a good sample, Types of Sampling - Probability and Non-Probability, Determining Size
of the Sample, Sample v/s Census. Introduction to Hypothesis: Meaning, Concepts & Types. Type I and
Type II Errors, Level of Significance, Testing of Hypotheses: Concepts, Steps in Testing of Hypothesis, P –
Value Approach. Univariate and Multivariate Data Analysis, Descriptive vs Inferential Analysis -
Descriptive Analysis of Univariate Data and Bivariate Data, T-Test, Z-Test, F-Test, Chi-Square, ANOVA –
Concept & Problems. Research Software like JMP / SPSS (Hands on Experience of the Software in Data
Analysis). Importance of Report Writing - Types of Reports, Footnotes and Bibliography, Referencing
styles and Reference Management Software like Zotero/Mendeley.
What is the primary aim of a systematic review?
•a) To conduct surveys
•b) To identify, appraise, and synthesize empirical evidence
•c) To gather qualitative data
•d) To compare opinions

stock and commodity market

Answer: b) To identify, appraise, and synthesize empirical
evidence

stock and commodity market

• Why must the review protocol be developed before conducting the
systematic review?
• a) To minimize the workload
• b) To restrict the presence of reporting bias
• c) To reduce the need for funding
• d) To select a specific population

stock and commodity market

• Answer: b) To restrict the presence of reporting bias

stock and commodity market

• The review protocol in a systematic review is:
• a) Optional
• b) Developed during the review process
• c) A separate document from the systematic review report
• d) Used to summarize findings

stock and commodity market

• Answer: c) A separate document from the systematic review report

stock and commodity market

• What is an important early step in the development of a systematic
review?
• a) Choosing participants
• b) Developing a review protocol
• c) Conducting a survey
• d) Writing the conclusion

stock and commodity market

• Answer: b) Developing a review protocol

stock and commodity market

• Which of the following is crucial in reducing bias in a systematic
review?
• a) The number of researchers involved
• b) Use of inclusion and exclusion methods
• c) The length of the study
• d) Random selection of participants
• Answer: b) Use of explicit methods

stock and commodity market

• Answer: b) Use of inclusion and exclusion methods

stock and commodity market