~Geography of

Tourism and
Development
Course code: GeES
4012~
 CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Definitions and Concepts of Tourism

Definitions:
Before we see the definition and the characteristics of tourism,
let us look at the definitions of the terms of:
Geography: an interdisciplinary field that deals with the spatial
variations and distributions of phenomena on the surface of
the earth(processes, interactions and patterns).
Tourism :
Development : is a multifaceted concept that denotes
transformation of something from simple and rudimentary
level to better and modern ways.
What is tourism?
There have been many definitions given for tourism by d/t organizations
and scholars.
 Tourism comprises the activities of persons travelling to and staying in
places outside their usual environment for not more than one
consecutive year for leisure, business or other purposes, or not related
to the exercise of an activity employed/ remunerated from within the
place visited UNWTO (2008).
 This broad and all encompassing definition of tourism hints at its
enormous size and impacts on the global economy.
 Multi-sector and trans-border industry, where the consumers
themselves come to the destinations.
It is difficult to get a single definition of tourism because of
various reasons:
a)Tourism is a field of study for different disciplines such as
psychology, sociology, anthropology, geography, economics,
which makes complex to define tourism.
b) As one of the world’s largest industries, tourism is
associated with many of the prime sectors of the world’s
economy. This makes also more problematic to have a single
definition.
c)Tourism, recreation and leisure are generally seen as a set of
interrelated and overlapping concepts. Tourism is also highly
linked with travel.
What is Travel?
Travel refers to the activity of travelers.
A traveler is someone who moves between different
geographic locations, for any purpose and duration.
Travel is as old as mankind on the earth. Man at the
beginning of his existence wandered about the
surface of the earth in the search of food, shelter,
securities, and better habitat. Furthermore, later on
for trade, invasions, military conquest, colonization
beginning from 15th centaury on wards and travel
has become for tourism in the late 18th c.
Rationales of the Early Travels:
• Most early travels have commenced from different
basis. These include:
i) Travel for searching for food, shelter, securities and
better habitat
ii)Trade and Commerce: most early travel was
associated with trade and commerce. Throughout
history, traders and merchants have travelled to far-
off lands in order to trade with other regions and
communities until the last century(20thc).
III) War/battle fields_ to control territories
IV) Exploring new lands/expeditions
V) Religious duties/pigrimags
VI) Other activities associated with the question of
livelihoods _ to improve a living.
Tourism is therefore a subset of travel and visitors are a subset of
travelers, or all travels can not be tourism but all tourism should
include travel[ there is no tourism without travel].

For instance, the following are examples of persons involved in travel

but not considered as tourists:
Persons coming to establish a residence in the country;
people on day trips are not officially tourists unless passing a night
there ( they are excursionists) ;
Persons passing though a country without stopping;
Diplomats working in a foreign country/land etc.,
What is a trip?
It refers to the travel by a person from the time of departure from his
usual residence until he/she returns: it thus refers to a round trip.
Two categories of visitors are:
• Tourists: Who are visitors making at least one overnight stop in a
country or region & staying for at least 24 hours and maximum of
12 months.
• Excursionists: are visitors that do not make overnight stop, but
passes through a country or region.
• An excursionist stays for less than 24 hours & includes day trippers
& people on cruises/vacation. Excursionists/same-day visitors:
are persons who do not reside in the country of arrival and stay for
just a day without spending the night in a collective or private
accommodation within the country visited.
Plog classifies tourists into three categories −
i) Allocentric (The Wanderers) − tourists who seek new experiences
and adventure in a wide range of activities; prefers to fly and to
explore new and unusual areas before others do so; Allocentrics
enjoy meeting people from foreign or different cultures; they prefer
good hotels and food, but not necessarily modern or chain-type
hotels; they would rather have the freedom to explore an area,
make their own arrangements and choose a variety of activities and
tourist attractions.
ii) Psychocentric (The Repeater) − A tourist falling in this category
is usually non-adventuresome.
• They prefer to return to familiar travel destinations where they
can relax and know what types of food and activity to expect.
Such tourists prefer to drive to destinations, stay in typical
accommodations, and eat at family-type restaurants.
• iii) Midcentric (Combination) − This category of tourists covers
the ones who swing between the above said two types.
• Accommodation: a group of rooms, or buildings which
someone may live or stay and is important to any
tourist who want to travel to another destination.
• It can mean a room or place where tourist stay, such as
hotels, motels, resorts, lodges, caravan parks, camp sites…
• A hotel is usually a large, enclosed building with hundreds of
rooms across multiple floors, while a motel has one or two
floors with outdoor room entrances and convenient and
wider parking space.
• Hospitality: means managing and facilitating the provisions
of food, beverages, accommodation, and socialisation for
tourists and warmly welcoming guests/tourist and providing
services and amenities.
• It also means extending a welcome to travelers and offering
services.
• The hospitality and tourism industry is a vast sector that
includes all the economic activities that directly or indirectly
contribute to, or depend upon, travel and tourism.
• This industry sector includes: Hotels & Resorts, Restaurants &
Catering, Night Clubs & Bars, Travel & Transportation Tourism
Spas & Wellness
• Destination: According to Webster's Dictionary, the term
"destination" is used to signify “the place set for the end of a
journey”, i.e. a geographical area (a location, a resort, a
region, a country, etc.) where the travelers/tourists intend to
spend time away from home.
Tourist destinations comprises the following:
• Attraction : A unique product offering that will invite the visitor to
come.
• Access: to both to the destination and the attraction, whether by land,
air, water or rail.
• Amenities: such as water, food, electricity, telecommunications,
security and access to healthcare must be in place.
• Accommodation: A place to stay during the visit that offers
convenience and comfort to suit budget and taste.
• Activities: Shopping, Dining, Snorkeling/swimming, and Gambling are
but few of the activities that can be made available to the visitor
during his stay.
• According to the definition of the World Tourism Organization
(UNWTO), a traveller/tourist destination is an important place
which represents the basic unit in tourism, with three
perspectives:
• Geographical: a distinctly recognizable area with geographic or
administrative boundaries that travelers visit and stay in during
their trip.
• Economic: the place where they stay the longest and they spend
a relevant amount of money and where tourism revenue is
significant to the economy.
• Psychological: the main reason for the journey ( the inner state
that pulls the visitor to travel).
Some Characteristics of Tourism Industry/Sector

Tourism has several unique characteristics: Some of them are:

1. Intangible nature of services- the essential difference between goods
and services is that goods are produced but services are performed.
2. Inseparability- this means that the act of production and consumption
is simultaneous and takes place in the same environment, not in the
consumer’s home environment. It also means that most of the staff of the
service companies have some consumer contact and are seen by the
customer.
3. Perishability- services are perishable; products cannot be stored for
future sale.
The sale of an empty hotel room, airline seat is lost forever. Services,
more importantly, the time available to experience them, cannot be
stored. For example, there is only one chance to enjoy a summer vacation
in a given year.
4. No possibility of creating and holding stocks- Linked with the
inseparability and perishability that it is not possible for a service
producer to create a stock of products to be used to satisfy daily
fluctuations in demand.
5. Heterogeneity- This means that every service performance is
unique to each customer.
6. Seasonality and demand fluctuations- It is a characteristic of
most leisure tourism markets that demand fluctuates greatly
between seasons of the year.
As a result, the occupancies in many tourism businesses increase
to 90 to 100 per cent in the high season but drops to 30 per cent
or less in the low season.
7. Multi-sector/ interdisciplinary nature:
• Tourism industry embraces a large number of different
organizations and workplaces including
hotels, motels and campsites, restaurants, bars,
clubs and cafeterias, catering and canteen
establishments, travel agencies and tourism information offices, as
well as conference and exhibition centres (ILO, 2001)
Why tourism needs to be studied in geography?
• The connections between tourism and geography are
linked to specific terms such as place, location, space,
accessibility, scale and others.
• Tourism as a science has also an integrative character,
containing key elements from all fields of geography,
physical, human/ economic geography.
• Besides, tourism geography has also many common points
with other sciences, including history, geology, biology, art,
economy and so on.
• The geography of tourism is also concern with the flows
of tourists from generating countries/demand side to the
destinations/supply side. These can be heavily influenced
by the economic and political factors.
• In more modern times, the tourism geography has
become to achieve a broader definition, regarding the
study of the spatial and temporal origin, repartition and
unfolding of the tourism phenomenon, being considered
as a complex and specific interaction at the level of the
geographic environment.
• As such, tourism geography studies things like the tourist
resources (natural or man-made), the tourism
infrastructure (transportation, accommodation, etc.), the
types and forms of tourism, the tourist circulation
(statistical research), tourist markets, as well as other
domains.
 Tourism as an industry occurs at destination areas:
areas with different natural and/or man-made
features, which attract non-local visitors (or
tourists) for a variety of activities.
What does sustainable tourism signifies?
Sustainable tourism can be defined as:
“ Tourism that takes full account of its current and
future economic, social and environmental
impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the
industry, the environment and host communities“.
• Thus, sustainable tourism should:
1) Make optimal use of environmental resources that constitute a
key element in tourism development, maintaining essential
ecological processes and helping to conserve natural heritage and
biodiversity.
2) Respect the socio-cultural authenticity/legitimacy of host
communities, conserve their built and living cultural heritage and
traditional values, and contribute to inter-cultural understanding
and tolerance.
3) Ensure viable, long-term economic operations, providing socio-
economic benefits to all stakeholders that are fairly distributed,
including stable employment
and income-earning opportunities and social services to host
communities, and contributing to poverty alleviation
Tourism is, however, a recent invention which is highly related
with travel.
1.2 Historical development/ Evolution of Tourism
In human history, it was during the Neolithic age that several
innovations were made which changed the nature of travel.
• Discovery of fire, domestication of plants and animals and
trained to carry and transport community members, making
of tools, agricultural products.
• Beginning of sedentary ways of live: villages, towns, cities
• Use of donkeys, mules, horses, wagon, carts…. As early means
of transportation;
 1. During Early periods:
 The Sumerians/Babylonians: invented the wheel around
3500B.C.;creater of money and trade; barter trade… one of the earliest
center of civilization.
• Innovation of the wheel during this period made movement of people
to distant lands possible.
• So travelling to far places commenced. Early travel was not under taken
for the purpose of pleasure rather it was related to the following
rationales such as trade, pilgrimages, military, controlling new
territories…
 The Phoneticians: the first ship builders; followed by Greeks
 The Egyptians:
• Build the pyramids
• Around 4000 B.C sailing vessels were built in Egypt.
• Purchasing souvenirs from the area they visited;
2) Middle Age Period : During the Middle Ages (from about
AD 500 to 1400), there was a growth of travel for religious
reasons.
• The pilgrimages gave birth to d/t accommodations;
• It had become an organized phenomenon for pilgrims to
visit their “Holy Land”, such as Christians to Jerusalem and
Rome and Muslims to Mecca, Medina.
The 16th Century: In the 16th century, the growth in
England’s trade and commerce led to the rise of a new
type of tourists - those traveled to broaden their own
experience and knowledge.
• 17th Century In the 17th century, the sons and
daughters of the British aristocracy traveled throughout
Europe (such as Italy, Germany and France) for periods
of time, usually 2 or 3 years, to improve their knowledge
and skills for administration.
• This was known as the Grand Tour (travel for educational
purpose), which became a necessary part of the training
of future administrators and political leaders.
 The grand tour before 19th centaury
• The Grand Tour of pre 19th century after the age of
exploration or Discovery was made by Diplomats, Business
people, Scholars for instances to European cities Paris,
Florence, Venice etc.
• Such tours were first started by the Aristocrats and later on
after the Industrial Revolution adopted by the bourgeoisie.
Industrial Revolution ( 1750s) brought:
• Change from manual or hand operated tools (at home)
to power driven machines( at factories);
• Inventions of steam engines(1779), steamships(1807),
expansion of roads and railways;
• Increased industrial population- needed leisure time
to travel;
• Economic oligarchy, owners of machinery products;
factory owners;
• Cox and Kings was the first tour company formed in 1758;
• Thomas Cook organized the first tour(the first rail excursion,
using chartered train) in England in 1841;
• During this period a great many poets, authors, and Artists
visited Italy.
• The Grand tour paved way for popular tourism of the 20th
century.
• Travel in 20th Century dramatically changed as results of
changes brought in:
Mental attitudes towards pleasure seeking;
Recognized value of travel for Education;
Increased in transportation system- eg. Boeing 707( 1958) the
age of air travel
Increase in material wealth coupled with social
prestige;
A growing need to find relief from working routine
and other motives have brought development &
expansion of travel traffic on large scale globally.
• Pleasure travel continued to expand in the beginning
of the 20th century.
• World war I was the time responsible for temporary
halt to tourist movements at the beginning of the 20th
century and WW II at the mid of the same centaury.
• Therefore, tourism has always been taken as a peace
time activity.
• Development of mass communication, ( media outlets,
transportation systems like Radio, television internet and
infrastructural development such as road, railways,
waterways, and aviation carriers intensified the pace and
rate of the expansion of the tourism industry world wide.
• Modern tourism is accelerated by a number of
socioeconomic, political, cultural factors.
1.3 Current Socio-Economic Trends of tourism development
 Tourism is a travel for recreation, leisure, business, treatment of
health.
 Modern tourism flourished with the advancement of capitalism in
the world related to industrialization, urbanization, globalization
etc,.
 Moreover, advancement in transportation and communication
technologies also accelerated the development tourism industry.
 These days, over 160 countries in the world used tourism industry
as one of the alternative sources of their foreign exchange.
 10 % of the GDP of the world;
 1/10 of jobs in the world
 30% export service at global scale.
Some evidences about worldwide Growth of Tourism:
• 1950: 25 million tourist arrivals ;
• 1990’s: Tourism grew globally at 7% per year;
• 2004: 760 million tourism arrivals corresponded to a 10%
global growth;
• 2005: The number of international tourist arrivals recorded
worldwide grew by 5.5% and exceeded 800 million for the
first time ever.
• Moreover, in 2020, global tourism is forecasted to reach
1.56 billion international arrivals.
• For example, International tourist arrivals exhibited a
significant advance in African destinations from 500,000 in
the year 1950 to 24,000,000 in 2000.
• This increase in arrivals continued and reached 28.2 million
in 2004 and rose to about 50 million in 2011.
• In terms of the continent's revenue generated on global
tourism, African's revenue generated by international
tourism rose from USD100 million in 1950 to USD 3.4
billion in 1980, which later increased to USD 6.4 billion in
1990.
• By 2000, African tourism receipts have risen to
USD10.6 billion and reached USD 31.6 billion in 2010.
• Tourism created 7.8 million jobs in Africa in 2011.
• After seven years, in 2017, the African international
tourist arrivals reached 63 million with the total
revenue generated from travel and tourism over USD
37 billion (UNWTO report, 2018).
What factors accelerated the advancement of modern
tourism development worldwide since 19th c ?
Theories of tourism development

Tourism theory explores the interdisciplinary study of

travel and tourism, focusing on the motivations, impacts,
and behaviors associated with tourism activities.
It examines concepts like tourist destination development,
and the socio-cultural and economic effects of tourism on
local communities.
Some of these theories Include:
1. Plog (1973) paid attention to the various psychological
characteristics of travellers, arguing that as a resort
develops, it appeals to different types of tourists from
‘allocentrics’, to ‘mid-centrics’, and to ‘phychocentrics’.
However, Plog was focused on the different types of
tourists over time.
2. Erik Cohen's theory (1972) 4 main types of tourists

• In 1972, Cohen developed a theory that is associated with the behavior and classification of
tourist types visiting the destinations. Cohen has classified the tourists into four categories
(individual choices of experience) ; namely,
a) Organized mass tourists: travel in groups; buy a packaged tour which is arranged in
advance by travel agents or tour operators-
b) Individual mass tourists: in which each member of the group has a certain degree of
control over his time and journey and does not bind to a group.
• The tourists under this category make their own individual decision about their activities.
• It is similar to the organized mass tourist, except that the tour is not entirely fixed.
• The tourist has a certain amount of control over his/her time and journey, and is not bound
to a group
c) Explorers as tourists, arrange their trip.
• They associate with the residents and try to speak the local language, but they do not
completely adopt the lifestyle of the host community or country.
d) The Drifters as tourists: the skip from destination to destination, this visitors usually
make short stop overs.
3. The Doxey Irridox tourism model (1975)
• In his model, Doxey states that an increase in the
number of tourists and a more developed tourism
industry when not benefiting the community at the
destinations results in anger in the host community
and this can lead to a mismatch between the interests
of the host and the guest.
• In Doxey Irridox’s Tourism Model, the view of the local
community towards tourists varies from
I) Euphoria: (a feeling of happiness or comfort) to
II) Apathy : when locals start losing interest in tourism,
III) Annoyance : (irritated) after the number of tourists and
the unfavorable impacts have increased; and finally
IV) Antagonism, strong dislike or hatred reached.
An increase in the number of tourists and a more developed
tourism industry, but which ignores the needs of the locals at
the destination results in irritation on the part of the host
community; and this can lead to incompatibility of interests of
the local community and the tourists
Richard Butler’s TALC Model
4. Richard Butler (1980)
• proposed a model that reflects the stages in the life
cycle of a tourism destination, particularly that of
a tourist resort.
• Using a concept from outside the area of tourism,
Butler adapted the sales curve and the product life
cycle to tourism.
• According to this model , tourism destinations, and
particularly tourist resorts, have at least five stages of
development.
 CHAPTER TWO
TYPES AND FORMS OF TOURISM
2.1.Domestic, International, Inbound and Outbound
tourism
Tourism has mainly two types and many forms on the bases
of the purpose of visit and alternative forms of tourism.
Tourism can be categorized as :
a)International/ Global Tourism and
b) Domestic/ Internal Tourism.
a) International Tourism . It can be grouped into:
i) Inbound Tourism
• This refers to tourists of outside origin entering a particular
country.
When people travel outside their host/native country to
another country, then it is inbound tourism for that country
where he/she is traveling.
For example when a tourist from Japan origin travels into
Ethiopia, then it is Inbound tourism for Ethiopia because foreign
tourist comes to Ethiopia.
ii) Outbound Tourism: this the opposite of inbound tourism.
• For example, if a person from Ethiopian travels to China as a
tourist, he/she becomes performing outbound tourism for
Ethiopia and an inbound tourism for China.
b) Domestic Tourism
• The tourism activity of the people within their own
country is known as domestic tourism.
• Traveling within the same country is easier because it
does not require formal travel documents and tedious
formalities like compulsory health checks and foreign
exchange.
• In domestic tourism, a traveler generally does not face
many language problems or currency exchange issues.
 Forms of tourism
Tourism has various forms on the basis of the purpose of visit and alternative
forms.
These are further divided into many types according to their nature.
These are some of the major forms of tourism include:
• Cultural Tourism: It satisfies the cultural and intellectual curiosity and
involves visits to ancient monuments, places of historical or religious
importance, etc.
World Tourism Organization Categories Cultural Tourism in to:
• Handicrafts and visual arts.
• Gastronomy and culinary.
• Social practices, rituals, and festive events.
• Music and performing arts.
• Oral traditions and expressions.
• Knowledge and practices concerning nature.
• It is aimed at learning, discovering, experiencing and consuming
the tangible and intangible cultural attractions/products in a
tourism destination.

• These attractions/products relate to a set of typical material,

intellectual, spiritual, and emotional features of a society.
• This encompasses arts and architecture, historical and cultural
heritage, culinary heritage, literature, music, creative industries
and the living cultures with their lifestyles, value systems, beliefs
and traditions
• Medical Tourism: people travel for medical, treatment or visit places
where there are curative possibilities, for example, hot springs, spa
yoga, etc.
• Adventure Tourism: Adventure tourism is an outdoor leisure activity
that generally takes place in an unusual, exotic, remote or wilderness
setting, sometimes involving some form of unconventional means of
transportation and tending to be associated with low or high levels of
physical activity.
• Ecotourism: Camping, hiking, and wildlife viewing are all examples of
ecotourism. a form of tourism involving responsible travel
(using sustainable transport) to natural areas, conserving the
environment, and improving the well-being of the local people.
• Its purpose may be to educate the traveler, to provide funds
for ecological conservation, to directly benefit the economic
development and political empowerment of local communities
Religious Tourism: Religious tourism is an important part of the
tourism industry it called special interest tourism, which usually
related to the followers of particular faiths who visit locations that are
considered as holy sites.
• Religious sites are not only visited by the pilgrims but also visited by
non-religious tourists since they have cultural, historical and religious
significance.

Sex Tourism: travel planned specifically for the purpose of sex,

generally to a country where prostitution is legal purpose of effecting a
commercial sexual relationship by the tourist with residents at the
destination".
Attractions for sex tourists can include reduced costs for services in the
destination country, along with either legal prostitution or indifferent
law enforcement, and access to child prostitution
 Con’t…..
Space Tourism: refers to the activity of travelling into
space for recreational purposes. It is sometimes
referred to as citizen space exploration, personal
spaceflight, or commercial human spaceflight, and it
covers spaceflights that are sub-orbital, orbital, and
even beyond Earth orbit.
• Sports Tourism
• Sustainable Tourism
• Dark Tourism etc.,
Theme Parks, Mountain Regions &Islands
The Theme parks:
 A theme park is ‘an amusement park that has themed
attractions, be it food, costumes, entertainment, retail stores
and/or rides’. Or
 A theme park is a destination which combines entertainment,
food and beverage and shops, and an environment that is
different from that found outside its gates.
 Dominant theme around which architecture, landscape, rides
or drives, shows, food services.
In general, theme parks provide visitors with interesting
experiences different from daily life.
Types of Them parks
a) Adventure: Excitement and action, frightening, mysterious;
b) Fantasy: Animation, cartoon characters, childhood
enchantment/attraction, children’s play park, fairy tales or stories,
magic, make believe and legends;
c) Nature: Animals, floral displays, horticultural gardens, Landscaping
marine life, natural wonders, Ocean, Wildlife;
d) Futurism: Advances in society and technology, discovery exploration
of science and technology, Robotics, Scientific fiction;
e) History and culture: Aboriginal, Authentic, Cultural heritage, Cultural
village;
f) Movies: shows, Comedy, Motion pictures, Show business;
• Eifel tower in Paris, France
Theme parks should have the following major features
to maintain viable in a highly competitive market
environment:
(I) Unique and interesting theme;
(II) Value for money / Variety of on-site attraction;
(III) Clean and pleasant environment;
(IV) Motivated and well-trained staff;
(V) Good location; and
(VI) Quality and consistency in services and facilities
Mountain Regions
• In many mountainous regions of the world the
accumulation of snow during winter constitutes the
main (and sometimes the only) source of stream
flow during subsequent warmer months and
throughout the year.
• The dramatic changes in topography within short
distances in mountain ranges usually force air masses to
release their moisture as they ascend and move across
the highest peaks and valleys.
• A special case among rural areas is that of mountainous areas.
• Mountains cover about 25% of the earth’s surface, and 12% of
the human population are there.
• Mountains are considered particularly important for the planet
because:
• They are the “water towers” of the world about 50% of the
global population depends on them for freshwater.
• They include fragile ecosystems rich in biodiversity due to
remoteness and variety of climatic conditions.
• They are reserves of energy and mineral resources.
• They are islands of cultural diversity.
Glacier National Park, Montana,
U.S.
• The capacity of mountainous areas to accumulate and store
water as snow and ice during winter and subsequently release
it as melt water during warmer months, when it is most
needed by human populations in adjacent areas, has been
recognized and valued by ancient and modern societies in many
parts of the world.
Tourists are attracted to mountains for many reasons:
• The climate and clean air,
• Varied topography
• Beautiful scenery, visitors take photos and admire their beauty.
• Local traditions,
• Simple life styles,
• Sports that require steep slopes or winter snow such as rock
climbing or hiking
Winter Tourism Activities in Mountain areas
• skiing,
• snow boarding/lodging or rooming
• Sledging / Tobboganing
• Icefall climbing
• Snow-Shoe Trekking
• Winter walking
• Ice skating /slipping
Eg. About 13 million people live in the Alps.
About 100 million visitors visit the Alps each
year.
Summer Tourism Activities in mountain areas
• walking,
• Hiking/mountaineering
• Bird watching
• Rafting/pushing
• Mountain Biking
 The Islands
• Islands are distinctive places to visit, often with a
unique character such as cleanness, calmness and
attractiveness…;
• Islands are important for conservation of
biodiversity, with many containing unique
species[ plants, Birds, mammals, fish…] on account
of their relative isolation,
• The rich cultural heritage that can be found on
many islands.
• Islands provide a significant tourism resource with
a strong responsibility on tourism to support
conservation of resources.
• Islands also provide support for the special
cultural and natural heritage assets that
promote tourism worldwide.
• Example, Cape Verde[ in Atlantic Ocean] and the
Maldives [in Indian Ocean]from Least Developed
Country status due to their levels of income from
tourism.
• Tourism income can support livelihoods in many
island communities.
Bali, in Indonesia, one of island
tourist site
The Hotels and Restaurants???
Natural Attractions
• Waterfalls
• Lakes
• Rivers
• Forests
Nature-Focused Activities
• Viewing landscapes
• Wildlife viewing
• Bird watching
• Photo safaris
• Trekking / hiking
Historical Attractions
• Castles, palaces
• Archeological sites
• Monuments, tombs
• Architecture or the art of designing buildings, eg. Great Walls
& steles;
• Historical museums
• Religious sites
Cultural Attractions (Arts tourism)
– Theater – Concerts – Galleries – Festivals/ Carnivals & Events.
Culture-Focused Activities
Photography, Painting, Pottery, Dance, Cookery( Gastronomy),
Crafts, Language studies
Indigenous based cultural tourism
• Tribal villages – Visits to cultural centers – Arts and
crafts – Cultural performances etc,.
A Lodge is an inn where travelers stay
overnight. If you are in need of a night’s
sleep while traveling an out of the way
country road,
• Lodging means accommodation for a period or a place
to sleep for one or more nights. Fancy hotels, youth
hostels, elder hostels, campgrounds, motels and other
businesses that provide a place for people to sleep
overnight are all in the lodging industry.
• Lodging businesses markets to other market segments
such as business travelers, leisure travelers, long-stay
travelers, and special travelers like people working
with the government, airlines, and military.
Gastronomy: a type of tourism activity which is
characterized by the visitor's experience linked with food
and related products and activities while travelling.
• It is defined as the art of eating and drinking in many
sources, it is an inter-related branch of art and science.
• It is about eating and drinking, this covers such issues as
nutritional sciences, sense of tasting and its physiology,
wine production, functions of nutritional elements in
human body, specifying qualities in choosing food stuffs,
and developing production processes in accordance with
hygiene and sanitation norms.
• Gastronomy tourism refers to the originality of a dish and
its being indigenous to a place, a region or a country,
covers the main areas of indigenous dishes and wine
production.
• Gastronomic tourism includes visiting food producers,
eating festivals, restaurants and special places related to
some special foods together with tasting a special dish,
observing its production and preparation processes or
eating a special dish from the hands of a very famous
chef as well as seeing how a certain dish is being
prepared.
• Culinary tourism or food tourism is the exploration of
food as the purpose of tourism.
• It is related to pursuit of unique and memorable eating
and drinking experiences.
• Generally, gastronomy, a new branch in tourism sector, is
in relation with not only eating and drinking, but it is also
interrelated with many other branches of science and art.
Agri-tourism/ agro-tourism: can be defined as a form of
commercial enterprise that links agricultural production
and/or processing with tourism in order to attract visitors
onto a farm, ranch, or other agricultural business for the
purposes of entertaining and/or educating the visitors
and generating income for the farm, ranch, or business
owner.
• tourism that is linked to agricultural practices, and can
include farm stays and visits to agricultural processing
facilities such as cheese makers and wineries
• It is the crossroads of tourism and agriculture. Examples
• Buying products directly from a farm stand;
• Picking fruit;
• Feeding animals;
• Staying at a farm or ranch.
Generally, agri-tourism should include the following four
factors:
a) combines the essential elements of the tourism and
agriculture industries;
b) attracts people to visit agricultural operations/ activities;
c) designs to increase farm income; and
d) provides recreation, entertainment, and/or educational
experiences to visitors.
Examples of Agri-tourism:
• agricultural museums; on-farm farmers’ markets; winery
tours and wine tasting; rural bed & breakfasts; and garden
tours etc.,
• Business tourism – which focuses on conferences,
meetings, incentives and events.
 CHAPTER THREE
BUSINESS OF TOURISM
• Tourism is a combination of phenomena and relationships. Two essential
elements are: the Dynamic element (the journey) and the Static element
(the stay).
• Is travel to attend an activity or event associated with business interests.
• A key component of business tourism is the MICE sector( Meetings,
Incentives, Conventions and Exhibitions).
• Business travellers, particularly conference delegates, may travel with their
partners and can be persuaded to spend extra time in the destination for
leisure purposes.
• Business tourism is high quality and high yield and can be positioned as a
key part of an economic development strategy.
• The sector is resilient to the types of events and economic downturns that
affect leisure tourism adversely
3.1 Tourism Resources
• Tourism is a resource industry, dependent for its basic
demand upon:
a) Nature’s endowment/physical attributes: the climate,
landforms, landscapes, flora or fauna; and
b) Society’s heritage/cultural heritages: the socio-cultural
heritage may draw tourists seeking to enjoy centers of
learning or entertainment, to visit places of interest or
historic significance or to view buildings or ruins of
buildings.
• Socio-cultural attractions may also extend to artifacts or
works of art; the experience of customs, rituals or
performing arts; enjoyment of foreign cuisine(food cooking)
and festivals.
• c) In addition to the natural and social endowments of an
area or destination, the industry can typically seek to
develop the resource and attractions base to tourism
through the construction of specific, often artificial,
tourist attractions.
• Examples might include tourist shops, places of
entertainment and amusement or theme parks,
swimming pools/water parks and leisure complexes.
• Tourism is more dependent on infrastructure than are most
economic activities.
• Unlike other activities, the absence of any one infrastructure
service can seriously harm the marketability of the tourism
product.
• Access to the country and specifically to the destination, are
as important to the clients/customers as the availability of
water and power at the destination.
• If sewage and solid waste management systems are not
adequate, ultimately the quality and resource base of the
asset can be deteriorated or damaged .
• Telecommunications are vital to the marketing, promotion
and sale of the tourist accommodation and to meet the
demands for entertainment or the business needs of visitors.
3.2 Transportation and Accommodations
• Tourism is centered upon travel and on staying away from home, hence
the provision of both transportation and accommodation should be
integral elements within development programs.
• Accommodation includes hotel businesses, hostels, pensions, bed and
breakfasts, campgrounds, recreational vehicle parks, and vacation rentals.
• Transformational developments need to take account of the
needs for external linkages (ports, airports, international rail
terminals, etc.) to allow tourists to gain access to their
destinations, as well as provision that allows for circulation
within the destination area (local roads, vehicle hire services,
etc.).
• Accommodation developments may reflect particular
market segments at which the destination is being
targeted (for example, luxury hotels for international
travelers).
• Cheaper or more flexible forms of accommodation: in
apartment blocks, villa developments, time shares or
caravan and camping sites.
• The expectations of quality that many tourists carry with
them also have implications for provision of public
utilities; water supply, sanitation and electricity are
essential requirements to most forms of modern tourism
development.
3.3 Marketing and promotion/Advertising
• Market is a set of actual and potential buyers who might
transact with a seller, that can be a physical or virtual space.
•Marketing is a social and managerial process by which
individuals and groups obtain what they need through creating and
exchanging products and value with others.
•Marketing aims to create value for customers by offering products
and services to satisfy their needs.
•Marketing starts with the fact that people have needs and wants.
•Marketing does not create the needs. The needs already exist. For
example, a consumer needs accommodation and wants to stay in a
hotel. Such needs change into demands when supported by
purchasing power and willingness to spend money to satisfy wants.
.
• From this perspective, the marketing concept is about satisfying the
needs of customers, in this case tourists, by creating and selling a tourism
product or service that meets these needs.
•A customer-driven approach is crucial for an effective marketing effort.
•Knowing what a customer wants and being able to provide it, is what
tourism marketing is about.

• It is a process which includes all elements from production and product

improvement to the final exchange of a product or service for
something value.
• Marketing is identifying and meeting customer/visitor needs.
• Whereas promotion is a major tool used in marketing.
• Promotion is devising methods of communication that will make the
greatest number of potential customers
A Promotion mix consists of:
i) Advertising (paid or non-personal presentational and promotion of
ideas services,
ii) personal selling( oral presentation one or more in face- to- face
basis ,
iii) sales promotion( activity of advertising and personal selling) and;
iv) public relation( presenting ideas, goods, services using mass
media) .
Good promotion is good communication.
• What is MICE? Why is important in the tourism industry?
• Meeting,
• Incentives,
• conference and,
• Exhibition
• Marketing and promotion are often overlooked /ignored
when countries establish a tourism sector, yet without it
demand may never be generated for the product in sufficient
quantity.
• By controlling marketing, a government can prevent the
“wrong” messages being sent externally, such messages
generally relate to cultural, social inclusion and ethical issues.
• The public-private sector effort will promote the tourism
activities of a country as a whole and specific regions or
destinations within the country.
• Individually, hotels, groups of hotels, or destinations that
include several non-affiliated hotels and tourist service
providers, will promote their own accommodation and
services.
• Smaller hotels have the most difficulty in absorbing
advertising costs and can often be assisted by national
and regional hotel associations with joint promotion and
marketing, combined with a joint computerized
reservation system.
• Most companies develop a special logo, music and or
message for their countries that can become instantly
recognizable.
• An advertising campaign targets a mix of media for the
general public: television, radio where it is important,
the Internet, where many countries now have their own
websites, the travel sections in newspapers, travel
magazines, travel books and even documentaries, and
brochures.
• Tour , airline and travel agency operators also consume
these same mixed media messages as the general
public;
• The tour operators and travel agencies are targeted
through paid familiarization trips to the destination,
bonus trips for successful marketing of the country,
paid conferences in selected regions, and ultimately
incentive commission structures.
• Compared to regular tourism, business tourism involves a
smaller section of the population, with different
motivations, and additional freedom-of-choice-limiting
constraints imposed through the business aspects.
• Destinations of business tourism are much more likely to
be areas significantly developed for business purposes
(cities, industrial regions, etc.). An average business
tourist is more wealthy than an average leisure tourist,
and is expected to spend more money.
• Primary business tourism activities include meetings,
and attending conferences and exhibitions.
• Despite the term business in business tourism, when
individuals from government or non-profit organizations
engage in similar activities, this is still categorized as
business tourism.
• Business tourism takes the form of traveling to,
spending money and staying abroad, being away for
some time, and has a history as long as that
of international trade.
• At the end of the 20th century, business tourism was
seen as a major industry.
Business tourism can be grouped into:
i) Traditional business traveling, or meetings - intended for
face-to-face meetings with business partners in different
locations around the world.
ii) Incentive trips - a job perk, aimed at motivating
employees (for example, approximately a third of UK
companies use this strategy to motivate workers)
iii) Conference and exhibition traveling - intended for
attending large-scale meetings.
primary destinations are Paris, London, Madrid, Geneva,
Brussels, Washington, New York, Sydney and Singapore
Souvenirs
• A destination incorporates a critical mass of
interrelated and varied supply-side elements or
places that include attractions, transportation
venues, and diverse types of lodging, dining, retail,
and support services

• Souvenir/ gifts is an integral part of the travel

experience and most tourists return home with
souvenirs to preserve and commemorate such
experiences.
• Souvenirs might take the form of T-shirts, authentic
handcrafted items, antiques, key chains,
miniature/small replicas of landmarks, or various
other objects.
• The tourism industry consists of a wide range of businesses that
provide a variety of services required by tourists in their place of
origin, during the journey and at destination. Tourist agents and
businesses are divided into three areas of activity, according to
the services they provide.
• End suppliers - provide the services at destination and belong to
accommodation, catering/cooking, transport and other services.
• Distributors - Those businesses that act as an extension of the
suppliers, providing promotional services and distribution. They
include sales agents and central reservations agencies.
• Organizers - Are agents that have the dual role of organizers
and/or producers of tourism services combined in packages,
mediating between suppliers and consumers; this category
includes travel agents and tour operators, whether wholesale,
retail or mixed.
Tourism value chain
• A supply chain is a system of organizations, people, technology,
activities, information and resources involved in moving a
product or service from a supplier to a consumer.
• In the case of tourism, this means all of the companies and
people that contribute to making a holiday experience
• By analyzing the value chain it is possible to see how a tourist’s
expenditure is shared between the many different services
providers, both at home and in the holiday destination.
• The challenge is to increase the benefits for local/rural people
and particularly the share of poorer groups. One alternative is a
community business.
 CHAPTER FOUR
DEMAND FOR TOURISM

4.1 Population, Tourism demand and Travel demand propensity

What is tourism demand?

Tourism demand: is the total number of persons, who travel or wish to
travel and use tourist facilities and services at places away from their
places of work or residence.” Cooper et al, 1993
Demand is made of all those travelling to some place (tourists to
destinations).
It can be measured by taking into account four elements:
a) people (tourists),
b) money (expenditure, receipts),
c) time (stays and travels durations) and
The precise approach one adopts to the analysis of tourism
demand is largely dependent upon the disciplinary
perspective of the researcher.
 Geographers view demand in a uniquely spatial manner as
‘the total number of persons who travel, or wish to travel,
to use tourist facilities and services at destinations away
from their home and work place.
 Whereas in this context demand is seen in terms of the
relationship between individuals’ motivation [to travel]
and their ability to do so with an attendant emphasis on the
implications for the spatial impact on the development of
domestic and international tourism.
  Economists emphasize the schedule of the amount of any product or service
which people are willing and able to buy at each specific price in a set of
possible prices during a specified period of time.

 Psychologists view demand from the perspective of motivation and behavior.

Generally it can be argued that the demand for travel and tourism is the need
to travel
4.2 Classification of Tourism Demand
• In conceptual terms, there are many principal elements/ classification to tourism
demand:
A) Effective/Active/ Actual demand: comprises the number of people participating in
tourism, commonly expressed as the number of travelers.
• This is the aggregate or total number of participants tourists recorded at a given
destination or location at a particular point in time.
• This is the type of demand that is easily recognised.
• This is because it is just reference to the tourism statistics at hand on which the total
number of tourists is shown.
 It refers to total number of people, who are actually utilizing tourism demand
and supply different tourism products in current time at a particular place /
market.

 This is most commonly measured by tourism statistics which means that most
official sources of data are measures of effective demand.

b)Suppressed demand: is the population who are unable to travel because of

circumstances.
This is the portion of the population that do not travel for some reasons. They
have the willingness to travel, however' they are not travel due to some reasons.
• There are two sub-divisions of suppressed demand:
• Potential demand: the people that are more likely to travel or become actual
demand in the future when circumstances that are preventing them from
travelling change or allow. e.g. lack of purchasing power or limited holiday
• Deferred demand: with this the problem comes from the supply side
such as the lack of accommodation facilities the weather condition at
the destination' disease outbreak among others.
• If the circumstances change, potential demand and deferred demand
can be converted to effective demand.
c) No demand: is a distinct category for the population who have no
desire to travel.
• These are the people who do not want to travel for tourism purposes
or simply do not participate in tourism activities.
• The demand for tourism may be viewed also in other ways using a
number of other concepts:
• Substitution of demand where the demand for a specific activity is
substituted by another activity; and
• Redirection of demand where the geographical distribution of tourism
is altered due to pricing policies of competing destinations, special
events or changing trends and sensitivities.
• Many researches acknowledged that no two individuals are alike,
and differences in attitudes, perceptions and motivation have an
important influence on travel decisions where as attitudes depend
on an individual’s perception of the world.
• Perceptions are mental impressions of a place or travel company
and are determined by many factors which include childhood,
family and work experiences.
• However, attitudes and perceptions in themselves do not explain
why people want to travel.
• The inner urges /desire/ impulse which initiate travel demand are
called travel motivators.
• Demand for tourism at the individual level can be treated as
a consumption process which is influenced by a number of
factors.
• These may be a combination of needs and desires,
availability of time and money, or images, perceptions and
attitudes.
• Demand for tourism is also expressed in terms of travel propensity.
• There are two types of travel propensity:
1) Net travel propensity refers to the proportion of the total population or a
particular group in the population who have made at least one trip away
from home in period in question (usually a year) and is calculated by the
following formula:
Net travel propensity(as %) = P’ /P x 100 where,

• P’ = the number of persons in a country or in a particular population group

who have made at least one trip away from home in a given period,
• P = total population of a country or group. Or
Net travel propensity = No. pop.taking at least one trip in given period X100
Total population
Gross travel propensity refers to the total numbers of trips taken
in relation to the total population studied and is expressed by the
formula:
Gross travel propensity = Tp / P x 100 where,
Tp = total numbers of trips under taken by the population in
question
P = total population of a country or group.
or
Gross travel propensity = No. of Total Trips made X 100
Total population
Travel frequency: Based on the net and gross travel propensity,
we can derive the concept of travel frequency which refers to the
average number of trips taken by a person participating in tourism
in a given period.
The formula is:
Travel frequency = Tp / P = Gross travel propensity/ Net travel
propensity, where Tp and P have the same meaning as indicated
above.
Or
Travel frequency = Gross travel propensity
Net travel propensity
• Where the net travel propensity is low, for example 30%,
growth in tourist demand may come largely through an increase
in the proportion of the population who attain a standard of
living enabling them to take holiday or tours.
• Where the net travel propensity is much higher, for example
60% to 70% an increase in demand may result mainly from
existing travelers travelling more frequently, that is an increase
in gross travel propensity.
• Although demand can be measured in the above different way
none of the variables are readily available and data problems are
a serious problem and continue to the future for most tourism
analysis.
Country Potential Generation Index(CPGI)
• CPGI means the average national generation capacity, that is, the
ability to evaluate tourism in a country.
• It is originally used for comparing potential generation index
between countries(the number of international tourists that the
country receiving).
• It can also be used to compare the ability of generating tourism
among different parts of a country (domestic and international
tourists).
• Formula used to compute is:
• CPGI= (Nt /Nw)/ (Pc /Pw),where, In the : Nt — the number of
tourists in the country; Nw — the number of tourists in the world;
Pc — the population of the country; Pw — the population of the
world
• Example:
Given
The number of tourists visiting the country in a year is 1,000,000, the
number of world tourists 1,200,000,000; number of population of the
country 100,000,000 and world population is 7,800,000,000. The
calculate the CPGI.

CPGI= (Nt /Nw)/ (Pc /Pw)

• CPGI ≧ 1 indicates the average generation capacity of the country’s

potential tourism.
• CPGI less than 1 indicates that the ability to generate tourists is
lower than the average.
4.3.Determinants of Travel Propensity
The major factors affecting travel/ tourism propensity are:
a) Age
b) Gender
c) Education
d) Income
Factors affecting tourism demand can be divided into two categories i.e.
price factors and non-price factors.
There are many factors which we need to consider under each category.
i) Price factors
• How much is the transport cost for a tourist to go to a destination?
• Flight prices change often, and the price tourists pay depends on the
day they fly, when they book/reserve, and the number of available
seats in airlines.
• Flights prices also depend on tourist destinations.
• So, costs could be high or low. For example, a tourist can travel from
London to Paris with £20 or less.
• However, sometimes they need to pay more than £100.
• A flight from London to Dubai may cost £300 or more.
• Therefore, whether a tourist will travel to a destination or not may
depend on transportation cost.
• It is important to note that different airlines have different pricing
policies.
• Cost of accommodation, food, shopping, and entertainment also
impact on tourism demand.
• For example, food is usually expensive in Switzerland while it is cheap
in India. Exchange rates also impact on tourism demand.
ii) Non-price factors
• There are a number of non-price factors that can affect tourism demand. For
example, destination image is an important factor( how bad or good a destination
is).
• Countries in the world with a great number of historically significant heritage sites
and attractions can attract more tourists.
• Immigration systems in a country may also impact on tourism demand.
• Flexible and accelerated visa processing systems often motivate tourists to travel
abroad.
• For instance, tourists from developing countries often find it difficult to travel to
developed countries due to rigid immigration systems.
• Weather conditions also play an important role in tourism demand. Tourists often
go to destinations in search of sunshine.
• Likewise, winter is perhaps the only solution for many attractions promoting skiing.
• Heavy rains and floods usually impact on tourism demand in any destination;
drought and famine
• Spread of pandemic diseases( Ebola, Black death, COVID-19 , wars, political unrest,
eg. The war in Syria, Tunisia, Yemen, Ukraine etc.
Major of factors determine the demand for tourism products. Theses are

• Personal income (discretionary/unrestricted income)

• Holiday entitlement/ claim or right
• Government taxes and restrictions
• Availability of tourism facilities
• Personal factors/ demography
• Price
• Health and safety issues
• Seasonality etc.
Over tourism describes the situation in which the impact of tourism, at
certain times and in certain locations, exceeds physical, ecological, social,
economic, psychological, and/or political capacity thresholds (European
Parliament, 2018).
4.5 Tourist Motivation and Decision making
 The question of why people travel is fundamental to any understanding
of the practice of tourism and its consequences.
 Though not universal agreement about the primary motive for people
travel for tourism, it is a real or perceived need to escape temporarily
from the routine/tedious situations of the home, the workplace and
the familiarity of their physical and social environments to other
areas.
 There are a number of theories that focus on the analysis of tourist
behavioral patterns as a means of exposing tourist motives.
• The factors which shape the tourist decision-making process to select
and participate in specific forms of tourism is largely within the field of
consumer behavior and motivation.
Tourist motivation: it can have various definitions.
a) Organizational goals: for instance, motivation is seen as “The
willingness to exert high levels of effort towards organizational goals,
conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfy some individual needs”.
This definition is specified to the goal of organization.
b) Individual goals: Other definitions which focuses on individuals goals
includes: ‘a state of need, a condition that exerts a push on the
individual towards certain types of action that are seen as likely to
bring satisfaction’. “An individual’s inner state that cause her/him to
behave in a way that insures the accomplishment of certain goals”.
• One of the most interesting theory is Graburn’s explanation of
tourist ‘inversions’—shifts in behavior patterns away from a norm
and towards a temporary opposite.
• This might be shown in extended periods of relaxation (as opposed to
work);
• Increased consumption of food, and increased purchases of drinks
and consumer goods;
• Relocation to contrasting places, climates or environments; or
• Relaxation in dress codes through varying states of nudity/ undress.
• Graburn proposes several different ‘dimensions’ under which tourist
behavioral inversions occur, including environment, lifestyle, formality
and health.
i) Environment: Winter vs summer Cold vs warm Crowds vs isolation
Modern vs ancient Home vs foreign
ii) Lifestyle: Thrifts vs indulgence Affluence vs simplicity Work vs
leisure
iii) Formality: Rigid vs flexible Formal vs informal Restriction vs license
iv) Health: Gluttony vs diet, Stress vs tranquility, Sloth vs exercise, Age
vs rejuvenation
Iso-Ahola (1982) optimal arousal theory
• Iso-Ahola's theory asserts that personal escape, personal
seeking, interpersonal escape, and interpersonal seeking
motivate tourism and recreation.
• Iso-Ahola’s model of the social psychology of tourism. Here
elements of seeking (intrinsic rewards ) and escape from
routine/tedious/ monotonous conditions;
• People pursue leisure as a potential satisfaction-producer for
two main reasons:
• To provide certain intrinsic rewards such as feelings of mastery and
competence; or
• To leave the routine environment behind
• Two elements of an ‘approach’ or ‘seeking’ and ‘avoidance’ or
‘escapist’ dimensions:
• Together these four elements can be organized in a two-by-two
matrix, where tourists can be placed in one of four cells:
• Escape their personal environment and seek personal rewards
• Escape their personal environment and seek interpersonal rewards
• Escape their interpersonal environment and seek personal rewards
• Escape their interpersonal environment and seek interpersonal rewards
Dann’s (1977) Push–Pull modellocation and attract them to another
—a push—pull effect.
• i) Push factors : are considered to be socio-psychological
motivations that predispose/affect a person to travel.
• They tend to be intangible or intrinsic desires relating to the needs
and wants of the individual that lead to the decision to take a
holiday.
• They are socio-psychological motivations that influence the
individual to travel.
• These include factors such as, the desire for escape, rest and relaxation,
health and fitness, adventure, prestige and kinship/relations.
ii) Pull factors :On the other hand the pull factors are those that attract the
individual to a particular destination.
• These include tangible resources such as beaches/shores, recreation
facilities and historic sites as well as visitors’ perception and expectation
(particularly in terms of marketed image).
• Therefore, push factors are perceived to be present before pull factors
can be effective.
Consumer decision making can be categorized as a five stage process:
1.Need Recognition – a perception of difference between the desired
state of affairs and the actual situation, sufficient to arouse and activate
the decision process.
2. Information Search – search for information stored in memory
(internal search) or search of decision-relevant information from the
environment (external search).
3. Pre-purchase alternative evaluation – evaluation of options in terms
of expected benefits and narrowing the choice to the preferred
alternative.
4. Purchase – acquisition of the preferred alternative or an acceptable
substitute.
5. Post-purchase alternative evaluation – evaluation of the degree to
which the consumption experience produced satisfaction.
An American psychologist and a professor of the 20th century, Abraham
Maslow (1943) proposed a theory on the hierarchy of human needs.
It can be depicted as a model of five basic motivational needs any human
being has. These needs are −
Stage 1: Physiological (or Biological) − Need for air, food, water,
shelter, warmth, and sleep, which are required for the survival.
Stage 2: Safety − Need for safety from harmful elements, freedom
from fear, physical safety, economical safety, safety against accidents
or their negative impacts. Safety may also manifest into security such
as job security and financial security.
Stage 3: Social − Need for having a family, need for intimacy, friends
and social groups. Need for belonging and being accepted and loved
by others.
Stage 4:Self Esteem − Need of feeling accepted and respected by
others, need for recognition and attention from others.
Stage 5: Self-Actualization − Need to realize one’s full potential. A
human being requires to attain this need after all the above needs are
satisfied.
 This pyramid helps to understand the priorities of the human needs in
the order depicted.
Does Maslow’s model work in tourism?
• Needs are not necessarily hierarchical nor are they singular
• Example of commercial adventure tourism - the drivers of participation may be
physiological, social and esteem related, and in some cases self-actualization may
come into play
• The same action may satisfy many needs simultaneously, defying simple
categorization
• Eating may satisfy a physiological need if the person is hungry, a relationship need
if dining with friends and relatives, a self-esteem need if eating at a fine dining
restaurant or perhaps even a self-actualization need if the person is a culinary
tourist and has always wanted to eat a certain type of food in a certain
destination.
• Some core tourism motives are not covered by the hierarchy or can be
included into multiple tiers.
• Novelty and escape/relaxation do not easily fit into the traditional hierarchy of
needs
• The causal link between need and behavior is not as absolute as desired.
Based on Maslow's five-level hierarchy of needs,
Pearce (1988) proposed a model, which lists five travel
motivations associated with relaxation, stimulation,
relationship, self-esteem and development or
fulfillment.
Internal Factors of Motivation
• Internal factors arouse, direct, and integrate a person’s behavior
and influence his decisions for travelling.
• Intrinsic Motivation − For many people, tourism is a way of
satisfying their psychological needs such as travelling, performing
leisure activities, exploring novelty and capabilities, self-expression
and self-assurance, creativity, competition, need for relaxation, and
belongingness.
• The intrinsic motivations pertain to assuring one’s capabilities on
different emotional fronts.
• Intrinsic motivation drives the tourists to opt/choose for
tourism for intangible rewards such as fun, assurance, and
other emotional needs.
• The other intrinsic factors of motivation are:
• Attitudes of Tourist − Knowledge of a person, place, or object +
Positive or negative feelings about the same.
• Tourist’s Perception − By observing, listening, or getting knowledge,
a tourist forms the perception about a place, person, or an object.
• Values or Beliefs − A tourist believes or values a specific mode of
conduct which is acceptable personally or socially.
• Personality of the Tourist − The nature and physique/ form of a
tourist plays an important role towards motivation in tourism.
 External Factors of Motivation
• There are external motives in tourism that can influence
tourists and pull them towards a certain motivation and
subsequent decision.
• Extrinsic Motivation − Here, a tourist gets motivated by
external factors such as money and the need to feel competent
on the scale of expenditure and performance.
• Place of Origin − The grooming of the tourist depends upon
the place of its origin. For example, for the Indian married
women, the tourism might come last in the list of preferential
things they wish to do whereas for American ladies, tourism
would acquire much higher rank.
• Family and Age − The family matters when it comes to the structure
and the income. Today, the families with nuclear structure and double
income tend to opt for long distance, extravagant tourism more than
joint families or families with single earning member who are
interested in visiting domestic places.
• The tourists also have different preferences of places according to
their age. For example, tourists in the age group of 5 to 45 years might
enjoy visiting destination near destination than older ones.
• Culture or Social Class − Tourists of different cultures prefer different
places, events, and different types of tourism.
• In addition, if friends and families who have visited a place earlier
spread the first hand information that motivates the others to visit the
place too.
• Market − Ever-changing market variables alter tourism. Changes in
value of currency, political situations, and economic well-being of the
country influence the decisions of a tourist.
 CHAPTER FIVE: TOURISM MANAGEMENT
5.1 Definition
What is management? Planning, organizing, controlling/ monitoring, evaluating…
activities to attain the intended goals and objectives.
Tourism management refers to everything that is related to the hospitality and travel
industries.
 It offers extensive training opportunities for management positions in the travel,
accommodations, and food industry.
 Tourism management can also include working in associations or agencies that are
directly involved with tourism services.
 It involves the management of multitude / interdisciplinary activities such as
studying tour destination, planning the tour, making travel arrangements
and providing accommodation.
 It also involves marketing efforts to attract tourists to travel to particular
destinations.
 It consists a net of techniques and disciplines oriented to keep the tourist
system to effectively functioning.
• The tourism industry can be divided into five career areas that
need to be managed: accommodation, food and beverage services,
recreation and entertainment, transportation and travel services.
• All of these areas involve providing services to people who visit
from other parts of the country and the world.
• "Few of the career options are working in travel agencies,
Customer Ground Handling
• (customer service) at international or domestic airports, tour
operator, event manager, ticketing officer, adventure tourism
expert, transport officer, holiday consultant, logistics, cruises,
airlines, hotels, and tourism departments in government and
private sectors”.
• The travel and tourism industry provides various job roles.
1. Financial Management
Meaning of Financial Management
• Financial Management means planning, organizing, directing and
controlling the financial activities such as procurement and utilization
of funds of the enterprise. It means applying general management
principles to financial resources of the enterprise.
Functions of Financial Management
• Estimation of capital requirements: A finance manager has to make
estimation with regards to capital requirements of the
company/tourism firm.
• This will depend upon expected costs and profits and future
programmed and policies of a concern. Estimations have to be made
in an adequate manner which increases earning capacity of
enterprise/firm.
• Determination of capital composition: Once the estimation have
been made, the capital structure have to be decided.
• This involves short- term and long- term debt equity analysis.
• This will depend upon the proportion of equity capital a company is
possessing and additional funds which have to be raised from outside
parties.
• Choice of sources of funds: For additional funds to be procured, a
company has many choices
• There are critical components to the interaction of monetary
administration in Tourism that incorporates :
1. Financial Planning
2. Financial Control/monitoring
3. Financial Decision-making
5.2 Human Resource Management
• Human resource management is concerned with the people dimension
in management.
• In simple sense, human resource management means employing
people, developing their resources, utilising, maintaining and
compensating their services in harmony with the job and
organizational requirements.
Managerial Functions
Managerial functions of personnel management involve planning,
organizing, directing and controlling.
(i) Planning: It is a predetermined course of action. Planning involves
planning of human resources, requirements, recruitment, selection,
training etc.
It also involves forecasting of personnel needs, changing values, attitudes
and behavior of employees and their impact on the organization.
(ii) Organizing: According to J.C. Massie, an organization is a
“structure and a process by which a co-operative group of human
beings allocates its task among its members, identifies relationships
and integrates its activities towards a common objective.”
• An organization establishes relationships among the employees so
that they can collectively contribute to the attainment of company
goals.
(iii) Directing: The next logical function after completing planning
and organizing is the execution of the plan.
• The basic function of personnel management at any level is
motivating, commanding, leading and activating people.
(iv) Controlling: After planning, organizing and directing various
activities of personnel management, the performance is to be
verified in order to know that the personnel functions are
performed in conformity with the plans and directions of an
organization.
• Controlling also involves checking, verifying and comparing of the
actual with the plans, identification of deviations if any and
correcting of identified deviations.
• Auditing training programs, analyzing labor turnover records,
directing morale surveys, conducting separate interviews are
some of the means for controlling the personnel management
function and making it effective.
Human Resources Development
• It is the process of improving, molding and changing the skills,
knowledge, creative ability, aptitude, attitude, values, commitment
etc., based on present and future job and organizational
requirements. This includes:
(i) Performance Appraisal: It is the systematic evaluation of
individuals with respect to their performance on the job and their
potential for development.
(ii) Training: It is the process of imparting to the employees technical
and operating skills and knowledge.
(iii) Management Development: It is the process of designing and
conducting suitable executive development program so as to
develop the managerial and human relations skill of employees.
(iv) Career Planning and Development: It is the planning of one’s
career and implementation of career plans by means of
education, training, job search and acquisition of work
experiences.
It includes internal and external mobility.
 (v) Internal Mobility: It includes vertical and horizontal
movement of an employee within an organization. It consists of
transfer, promotion and demotion.
(vi) Transfer: It is the process of placing employees in the same
level jobs where they can be utilized more effectively in
consistence with their potentialities and needs of the
employees and the organization.
(vii) Promotion: It deals with upward reassignment given to an
employee in the organization to occupy higher position which
commands better status and/or pay keeping in view the human
resources of the employees and the job requirements.
(viii) Demotion: It deals with downward reassignment to an
employee in the organization.
(ix) Retention and Retrenchment Management: Employers prefer to
retain more talented employees while they retrench less talented
employees.
Employers modify existing human resource strategies and craft new
strategies in order to pay more salaries, provide more benefits and
create high quality of work life to retain the best employees.
(x) Change and Organization Development: Change implies the
creation of imbalances in the
1. Recruitment /staffing
 It is perceived as a procedure of seeking and finding candidates
for jobs, including the right person that can be selected.
 Recruitment is the process of assuming adequate and capable
people ad providing them with the motivation to apply for work
with the company.
 The recruitment process comprises of five interrelated stages; (i)
Planning, (ii) Strategy development,(iii) Searching,
(iv) Screening, and (v) Evaluation and control.
 The function of HR is to make the staffing procedure an ideal
one.
 The ideal recruitment process is the one that attracts a relatively
larger number of qualified applicants who will survive the
screening process and accept positions with the organization,
when offered.
• The recruitment process includes the following steps:
a) Categorizing the vacant positions,
b) Preparing job description and qualifications,
c) Advertising the vacant position,
d) Administering the demand and supply,
e) Short-listing,
f) Classifying interviews.
 This process is immediately followed by the selection, the final
interviews and the decision making process, conveying the decision
and the appointment.
 Staffing the appropriate applicant(s) requires a whole time-
consuming and detailed procedure, although ensures equal
opportunities for all applicants.
• There are a number of approaches to recruiting, retaining
and motivating employees in the tourism industry.
These include:
• positively targeting recruits from groups under-represented in
the workplace;
• Providing career development opportunities;
• Providing training and development opportunities and
ensuring that the organization
• Views training as an investment rather than a cost;
• Ensuring competent line management;
• Considering job design and job roles, including: job
enlargement, job enrichment, job rotation, job satisfaction
and job sharing;
• Considering levels of pay and non-financial rewards on a
regular basis;
• Managing employee expectation;
• Ensuring all new recruits complete a well-planned induction
program
• Addressing equality issues, e.g. through the implementation
of family-friendly human resources practices.
Importance of Employee Empowerment:

• Employee empowerment helps in developing productivity and cost

reduction;
• Providing employee complete freedom to take up judicious decisions;
• Employees feel self-esteemed, self-efficacy and self-confidence;
• Allocating right authority for the betterment of the organization;
• Helps employees feel self-reliant;
• Better decision making can lead to great self-confidence;
• Motivates employee to take independent decisions;
• Helps in increasing the organization efficiency;
• Provides the organization an opportunity to assign projects to test the
employee competence etc.,
5.3 Risk Management
What is risk management?
• Risk is any situation that has the potential to affect long-term
confidence in an organization or a product, or which may interfere
with its ability to continue operating normally.
• A crisis is defined as a time of difficulty or danger and is usually a
time when difficult or challenging decisions must be made.
• Risk management is a planned process through which organizations
manage active crises.

• With a plan in place that outlines the process of managing a crisis,

organisations can adapt more easily to deal with a crisis.
• The tourism industry operates in a dynamic environment that
involves many interconnected sectors.
• Tourism risk management provides a basic framework for the
identification, analysis, assessment, treatment and monitoring of
risks.
• It is the basis of both crisis management for destinations and
businesses/organizations and of disaster management for
communities
• As a result, it is constantly evolving and is particularly vulnerable to
unexpected crises. Crises come in many forms, including health
threats like the 2020 global coronavirus pandemic, natural
disasters such as earthquakes and floods, political unrest and
terrorist attacks.
• Such risks and crises pose significant threats to the tourism
industry, destinations and tour operators working in the sector.
• In recent years, there have been several major crises, including
the Easter Day bombings in Sri Lanka in 2019, and widespread
political unrest in Ethiopia during the same year, both of which
had a major impact on the tourism industry.
• Crises can have a long-term negative impact on a destination
both in terms of the destination’s image and its visitor
numbers.
• Planning for and understanding how to manage risk when a
crisis occurs and deal with the issues that arise from
unforeseen events are key to mitigating the negative effects of
a crisis in tourism business.
• Destinations and operators that have prepared well and implemented
the best strategies to manage the crisis will be best positioned to
survive the crisis and welcome visitors again as quickly as possible.
Risk Management Process
1. Establish the context
• This step refers to establishing the policies, systems, procedures and
relationships with stakeholders that are pertinent to the organization,
which requires a solid understanding of the business in areas including
key business activities, economic constraints, and organizational
strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats (SWOT).
• Conducting a SWOT analysis of the business is a useful business tool,
and the specific focus on ‘threats’ will help to outline the potential
problems.
2. Identify the risks
• No two crises are the same, and some destinations will be more
susceptible to particular crises than others.
Examples:
• Natural disasters – these include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
tsunamis and floods, hurricanes and other extreme weather
disasters.
• The Boxing Day Tsunami in 2004, which devastated numerous
coastal communities in Asia and killed more than 230,000 people,
and Hurricane Maria, which divested several islands in the
Caribbean in 2017, are two examples of natural disasters.
• Political issues – political unrest is common in developing countries,
and they often have an impact on tourism.
• Ethiopia and Nicaragua both experienced political unrest in 2019,
which caused other countries to issue travel advisories to their
nationals that, in these examples, are still active.
• Terrorism – some countries/regions suffer more from terrorist attacks
than others. Notable examples include bombings in Sri Lanka and
Thailand that deliberately targeted tourists.
• The 2019 Easter Day bombings in Sri Lanka killed more than 250-300
people and more than 500 injured. Thailand has suffered from several
terrorist attacks targeted at tourists, including one at a shrine in
central Bangkok, which resulted in the deaths of 20 people.
• Health-related incidents – pandemics and epidemics are the most
likely crises.
• Along with COVID-19, the Ebola epidemic between 2014 and 2016,
which affected several West African countries, is a major example in
this category.
• The Ebola epidemic impacted tourism elsewhere in Africa, in countries
many thousands of miles away, owing to the misconception that
‘Ebola is in Africa, so Africa has Ebola’.
• In 2014, the Kenya Tourism Federation reported that tourism
arrivals had fallen by an estimated 15-20%, and in Tanzania,
hotel bookings were reported to have dropped by up to 40%.
• Economic crises – financial crises often have a significant effect
on the tourism industry, such as the Global Economic Crisis in
2008/9, which lead to a 4% drop in international tourist arrivals.
However, by 2010, tourism had rebounded/recovered strongly.
• The impact of COVID-19 is likely to lead to a further global
economic crisis.
3. Analyze and evaluate risks
• Analyzing risks involves determining the likelihood of a crisis
occurring and their possible consequences, from insignificant
up to catastrophic.
• Understanding which possible crisis would have the most
negative impact will enable you to decide on the priority course
of action.
• For each risk you identify, you can create a matrix that assesses
and rates the likelihood of the event happening and the
possible consequences.
4. Treat risks
• There are a number of accepted strategies that can adopt to manage risk:
• Avoid the risk – which involves not proceeding with an activity likely to be risky. For instance, if
a tour operates in an area prone to flooding or landslides at a particular time of year, the tour
could be automatically discontinued at this time, or could be re-routed.
• Reduce the risk – if a risk cannot be eliminated completely, steps should be taken to reduce the
risk by implementing initiatives such as suitable safety standards, providing suitable equipment,
ensuring buildings are constructed to withstand earthquakes, and implementing adequate
health and safety procedures.
• Transfer the risk – usually to a third party such as an insurance company.
• At the very minimum, your business should have public liability and professional liability cover.
• European tour operators generally require their suppliers to have adequate liability insurance in
place before they will do business with you. See the tip below for more information.
•Retain the risk – this typically refers to accepting that minor risks do happen infrequently in the
course of business and being able to manage them in the most appropriate way. Crisis
Management
 Emergency response plans are desirable from governments in developing contingency plans for
emergencies, such as natural disasters or health crises, to protect both residents and visitors.
 CHAPTER SIX
PRIORITIES OF TOURISM PLANNING
6.1 planning concepts
What is planning?
 Planning has been defined in various ways, but a common
perspective recognizes it as an ordered sequence of operations
and actions that are designed to realize either a single goal or a set
of inter-related goals and objectives.
 This conceptualization implies that planning is a process for
anticipating and ordering change; that is forward-looking; that
seeks optimal solutions to perceived problems; that is designed to
increase and (ideally) maximize possible developmental benefits,
whether they be physical, economic, social or environmental in
character; that will produce predictable outcomes.
• Like wise, tourism planning may take on a variety of forms and
may be deployed in a great diversity of situations including
physical and economic development, service provision,
infrastructure improvement, marketing and business.
• Although there are a diversity of potential applications for
planning, the basic nature of the planning process is
remarkably uniform, even allowing for the variation in detail
that will reflect the specific applications in which planning is
being exercised.
• There are several features of the general planning model to
emphasize:
1. There is a progression within the planning process from the general
to the specific.
• The process begins with broad goals and refines these to produce
specific policies for implementation.
2. There is an evident circularity in the process by which objectives and
the options for realizing those objectives are open to review and
amendment in the light of either background analysis or the
performance of the plan in practice.
3. The dynamic quality of the process. The general model maps out a
set of procedures that allow planning to be adaptive to changing
circumstances, a quality that is especially important to tourism
planning, where patterns of demand and supply are often volatile.
Flexibility should be a key concept for tourism planners.
Tourism and planning
• The need for tourism planning: It is now recognized that tourism must
be developed and managed in a controlled, integrated and sustainable
manner, based on sound planning.
• Planning is important in tourism for a wide range of reasons.
1. through the capacity of physical planning processes to control
development, it provides a mechanism for a structured provision of
tourist facilities and associated infrastructure over quite large
geographic areas.
 This geographic dimension has become a more significant aspect as
tourism has developed. Initially, most forms of tourism planning were
localized and site specific, reflecting the rather limited horizons.
 But as the spatial range of tourists has become more extensive as
mobility levels have increased, planning systems that are capable of
coordinating development over regional and even national spaces
have become more necessary.
2.In view of the natural patterns of fragmentation within
tourism, any systems that permit co-ordination of activity are
likely to become essential to the development of the
industry’s potential.
 This fragmentation is reflected in many different elements
that are required to come together within a tourism plan,
including accommodation, attractions, transportation,
marketing and a range of human resources.
 The diverse patterns of ownership and control of these
factors in most destinations, a planning system that provides
both integration and structure to these disparate elements
is clearly of value.
Planning systems (when applied in a marketing context) will
also enable the promotion and management of tourism
places and their products, once they are formed.
 3. There are clear links between planning and principles of
sustainability.
• Implicit in the concept of sustainable tourism are a range of
interventions aimed not only at conserving resources upon which
the industry depends, but also at maximizing the benefits to local
populations to properly manage those resources.
• The commonest form of intervention is via a tourism development
or management plan.
4. Planning can be a mechanism for the distribution and
redistribution of tourism-related investment and economic benefits.
It may assist both the development of new tourist places and,
where necessary, the economic rearrangement of established
places that tourists have begun to return.
5. The integration of tourism into planning systems gives the
industry a political significance ( subject to political influence and
control) and therefore provides a measure of status and legitimacy
for an activity that has not always been taken too seriously as a
force for economic and social change.
6. Lastly, a common goal of planning is to anticipate likely demand
patterns and to attempt to match supply to those demands.
Furthermore, through the exercise of proper controls over physical
development and service delivery, planning will aim to maximize
visitor satisfaction and to benefit host community and
government.
• The main concept in planning tourism is that tourism should be
viewed as an inter-related system of demand and supply factors.
The demand factors are international and domestic tourist markets
and local residents who use the tourist attractions, facilities and
services.
• The supply factors comprise tourist attractions, facilities and
services.
• Tourist facilities and services include accommodation (hotels, guest
houses etc., which are important for tourist to stay over nights),
tour and travel operations, restaurants, shopping, banking, postal
services etc.
• In order to use these facilities and services, the supply factors also
includes infrastructures such as transportation, water supply,
electric power etc.
• The effective development, operation and management of tourism
require certain institutional elements.
• These elements include organizational structures (i.e. government
tourism offices, private sector tourism associations), tourism
related legislation and regulations, education and training
programs, availability of financial capital to develop tourist
attractions, facilities, services and infra-structure marketing
strategies and promotion programs, travel facilitation of
immigration, customs and others of the entry and exit points of
tourists.
• The institutional elements also include consideration of how to
enhance and distribute the economic benefits of tourism,
environmental protection measures, reducing adverse social
impacts and conservation of the cultural heritage of people living
in the tourism areas.
 1. Tourism Planning at the National Level
• National planning days the foundation for tourism development
of a country and its regions.
• It establishes the policies, physical and institutional structures
and standards for development to proceed in a logical manner.
• It also provides the basis for the continuous and effective
management of tourism, which is so essential for the long-term
success of tourism.
• The other important specific benefits of under taking national
tourism planning includes: 9 Establishing the overall tourism
development objectives
• Integrating tourism into the overall devote policies and patterns
of the country/region and making coordinated development of
all the many elements of the tourism sector
• Optimizing and balancing the economic, environmental & social
benefits of tourism
• Developing tourism so that its natural & cultural resources are
indefinitely maintained and conserved for future as well as
present us
• Establishing the guidelines and standards for preparing detailed
plans of specific tourism development areas
• Laying the foundation for effective implementing of the tourism
policy and plan, and continuous management of the tourism
sector
• Offering a base line for the continues monitoring of tourism
development and keeping it on trac
• Promoting international contact and good will
2.Regional level Tourism Planning: almost all the above concerns of
national tourism planning are also considered in regional tourism
planning. But in comparison with national level, regional tourism
planning has the following distinctive features.
It is marked by an increase in the level of detail and
sharper/strongr focus upon particular developmental issues
Commonly show greater level of concern over environmental
impacts
Contain detailed consideration of the type and location of visitor
attractions together with supporting services
Reflect needs associated with the management of visitors.
Element of a Regional Tourism Planning
1. Objectives:- it should be comprehensive enough to include
economic, environmental & socio-cultural and institutional
analysis
2. General background analysis
3. Infrastructure analysis
4. Tourist attractions & activities
5. Tourist facilities and services
6. Marketing & promotion
7. Implementation and monitoring
3. Local Level tourism plan: Local tourism plans are primarily focused
upon the physical organization of tourism resources (accommodation,
local transport, local attractions), the control of physical development
(such as hotel construction), and the exercise of local visitors
management.
• Local plans are typically short term and regulatory in nature (rather
than being long-term, strategic elements) with a particular concern for
reducing development conflicts and harmonizing activities that use the
same spaces/resources.
• Local plans are similar with regional level plans in their attention to the
logistics of provision of supporting infrastructure power supplies, water,
sanitation etc, but will be distinctly more detailed in their approach.
• Unlike regional plans, local plans also pay much greater level of attention
to the physical design and layout. Local planning can be two types .
i) Destination Tourism planning
• Destinations refer to the place whose the tourist speed their time while they
are on vocation.
• Geographically it ranges from small communities to a region of a country to
an entire city. Working at the destination scale in an integrated manner is
crucial since this is where the entire visitors experience is delivered.
• Most of the interactions and impact of tourism activity occur at the
destination level making it the ideal unit for tourism and visitor
management.
• Many destinations operate within highly competitive environments. So the
challenge for destinations is to develop a service culture, physical
environment and a set of products that can satisfy not only first-time visitors
but attract repeat visitors.
• The components of planning, therefore, include tourist attraction features,
tourist facilities and services, access and internal transportation network
etc.
• Destination tourism planning need to take the following points into
consideration:
1. Identify the characteristics of the destination:- surveying and
identification of the resources and attractions should be done in order
to consider in the planning.
2. Maintain the diversity of attractions with in destinations:-
diversity provides varieties of attractions and encourage tourists to
stay longer and or come back again.
3. Cluster the attractions within the destination:- this gives more
opportunities for needed services such as infrastructure, police fire
protection etc. It also provides better change for limiting & controlling
impacts.
4. Planning for present development and future expansion.
ii) Site Planning
• The most commonly practices scale of tourism is the site, or the land area
within a destination. So site planning is the final level of planning and is the
most detailed one.
• Sites can be owned by individuals, governments, organizations and firms.
Planners and designers of tourist attractions have obligation to maintain major
qualities of site in their land, buildings and activity plans. Designing on this scale
is in fact creating the final tourism product or what can be called place making.
• Place making is not merely the manipulation of materials. Rather, it is the
creative adaptation of a given site to new uses and it is the retention of the
essence of a place while giving it new physical and psychological meaning.
• In the process of design and site planning, points that need to be given
attention are:-
• Survey the characteristics of the site
• Divide the site in to zones according to the existing characteristics
• Plan and organized design elements in a proper way that suit the site
• Assignment topics
• Tourism As a tool for Development
• Discuss the role of Tourism in Economic and Regional Development with
concrete examples.
• Explain the Community Based Tourism Development, its effects and factors
impeding .
• Elaborate the Tourism and Environmental Conservation, strategies
• Impacts of Tourism
• Factors Encouraging or Prohibiting tourism Development
• Economic Impacts of tourism
• Social-Cultural Impacts of tourism
• Environmental Impact of Tourism
• The historical Development of Tourism industry in Ethiopia and its positive
and negative Impacts.