ATOMIC STRUCTURE

CHAPTER 4
 BOHR’S ATOMIC
MODEL

❖ In 1913, a young Dutch

physicist, Niels Böhr
proposed a theory of atom
❖ The atomic model he
described had electrons
circling a central nucleus
that contains positively
change proton.
 BOHR’S ATOMIC
MODEL

Böhr also proposed that these

orbits can only occur at
specifically “permitted” levels
according to the energy levels of
the electron and explain
successfully the lines in the
hydrogen spectrum.
 BOHR’S ATOMIC
MODEL

First Postulates
● Electron moves in circular
orbits about the nucleus.
● While moving in the orbit, the
electron does not radiate or
absorb any energy.
 BOHR’S ATOMIC
MODEL

●[orbit = energy level =

[shell]
●Orbit is a pathway
where the electron is
move around the
nucleus
Orbit
 BOHR’S ATOMIC
MODEL

Second Postulate
The moving electron has a
specific amount of energy; its
energy is quantised.
 BOHR’S ATOMIC
MODEL

Third postulate
●
At ordinary conditions, the
electron is at the ground state
(lowest level).
●
If energy is supplied, electron
absorbed the energy and is
promoted from a lower energy
level to a higher ones.
(Electron is excited)
 BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

Fourth Postulate
● Electron at its excited states is unstable.
● It will fall back to lower energy level and released a specific
amount of energy in the form of light (photon).
● The energy of the photon equals the energy difference between
levels.
ORBITAL AND QUANTUM
NUMBERS
 ATOMIC ORBITAL

Definition

● An orbital is a three-
dimensional region in
space around the
nucleus where there is a
high probability of
finding an electron.
 An orbit is the path of an electron as it travels
What is the difference
round the nucleus of an atom.
between an orbit and
An orbital is a region in which an electron may
an orbital?
be found in an atom or molecule
 QUANTUM NUMBERS

Each of the electrons in an atom is described and

characterized by a set of four quantum numbers, namely
● principal quantum number, n
● angular momentum quantum number, l
● magnetic quantum number, m
● electron spin quantum number, s.
 QUANTUM NUMBERS

These quantum numbers describe the energy

level of an orbital and define the shape and
orientation of the region in space where the
electron is most likely to be found.
 PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER, n
● The Principal Quantum Number, n determines the energy level (also referred to as
electron shell) and size of an orbital.
● The principal quantum number n, may have +ve value starting from
n =1, 2, 3, …, ∞.
● As n increase :
i) the orbital become larger
ii) electron has higher energy
iii) Farther it is located from the nucleus Remember!!!!!
Period number = Principle quantum
number
PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER, n
n 1 2 3 4

Orbital
size

Energy
increase
s
 ANGULAR MOMENTUM QUANTUM NUMBER, l

● Alternative name - Azimuthal Quantum Number

● The allowed values of l are 0, 1, 2,…, ( n - 1)
● The value of l indicates the shape of the atomic orbital. For example,
when n = 1 and l = 0 we have the s orbital
Value of orbital shape
• A collection of orbitals with the same value of n l
is called a shell.
0 s spherical
• One or more orbitals with the same n and l
1 p dumbbell
values are called sub-shell.
2 d cloverleaf

3 f
Shell, n Sub-shell, l Name of
sub-shell
n=1 l=0 1s

n=2 l=0 2s two subshells

l=1 2p (s and p-orbitals)
n=3 l=0 3s
l=1 3p three subshells
l=2 3d (s, p, and d
orbitals)
 MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER, m
●
Describe the orientation of orbitals in space.
●
Possible values of m depend on the value of l. For a given l, m can be : -l, 0,
+l
●
Example:
If l = 0, m = 0 » 1 orientation of s orbital
If l = 1, m = -1,0,+1 » 3 orientation of p orbital
(px, py, pz)
If l = 2, m = -2,-1, 0,+1,+2 » 5 orientation of d orbital
( dxy,dxz,dyz,dx2-y2,dz2)
 ELECTRON SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER, s

●The value of s represent the direction of

an electron rotation/ spin on its own axis.
●either clockwise or anticlockwise
●It has 2 value : +½ and -½
 The relationship between n , l and m

n l [0,1,2... (n -1)] M [ -l, 0, +l ] Orbitals Number of

orbitals
1 0 0 1s 1
2 0 0 2s 1
1 -1,0,+1 2p 3
3 0 0 3s 1
1 -1,0,+1 3p 3
2 -2,-1,0,+1,+2 3d 5
4 0 0 4s 1
1 -1,0,+1 4p 3
2 -2,-1,0,+1,+2 4d 5
3 -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2+3 4f 7
 SHAPE OF ATOMIC ORBITAL

s orbitals
● Spherical shape with the nucleus at the Centre.

● When l = 0 , m = 0 , only 1 orientation of s orbital.

● The larger value of n, the size of s orbital gets larger.

SHAPE OF S ORBITAL WITH DIFFERENT n

1 2 3
s s s
SHAPE OF ATOMIC ORBITALS

p orbitals
● Can be represent as a pair of dumb-bell shaped
● When l = 1, m = -1, 0, +1
● 3 orientation of p-orbitals px, py, and pz.
● As n increases, the p orbitals get larger.
 SHAPE OF p ORBITAL

p p p
x y z
SHAPE OF ATOMIC ORBITALS

d orbitals
● All the d orbitals do not look alike.
● When l = 2 , m = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2.
● There are five orientation of d orbitals.
SHAPE OF d ORBITAL
 SET OF FOUR QUANTUM
NUMBERS
● 4 quantum number n,l,m and s enable us to label completely an electron
in any orbital of an atom. Example:

● 4 quantum numbers of 2s orbital electron are

n = 2 , l = 0 , m = 0 and s = +½ and -½

● Can be simplified as (2,0,0,+½) or (2,0,0,-½)

n, l ,m, s n, l ,m,s
Description of electrons in orbitals
The position of an electron in an orbital is given
by the set of four quantum numbers.

Example:
An electron that occupies the 2py orbital can
be described as having these quantum
numbers:

n = 2, l = 1, m = -1 (or 0 or +1), s= +½ or -½
 z

Consider n = 1

Value of l; l = 0 y
x
Value of m ; m = 0
1s

Only one value of m shows one orientation only

An electron in the 1s orbital may have the spin: +½ or -½

the electron can be designated by these four quantum

numbers;
(n = 1,  =0, m = 0, s= +½) or (n= 1, =0, m=0, s=-½)

Or simplified as ;
(n,l,m,s) = ( 1,0, 0, +½ ) or (n,l,m,s)= (1, 0, 0, -½)
The four quantum numbers of electron
n l m s Orbitals Number Number
(name) of of e-
orbitals
1

3
 n/ Orbital No. of No of
 m
Shell designation orbitals electrons

1 0 1s 0 1 2

0 2s 0 1 2
2
1 2p -1, 0, +1 3 6

0 3s 0 1 2

3 1 3p -1, 0, +1 3 6
-2, -1, 0, +1, +2
2 3d 5 10
Example 1
Write the four quantum numbers for all electrons in the following
orbitals:
a) 3s
b) 2p
c) 4dxy
 Solution:
a) (n=3, l=0, m= 0, s=-1/2) and (n=3, l=0, m= 0, s=+1/2)

b) (n=2, l=1, m= +1, s=-1/2) ,

(n=2, l=1, m= +1, s=+1/2) ,
(n=2, l=1, m= 0, s=-1/2) ,
(n=2, l=1, m= 0, s=+1/2) ,
(n=2, l=1, m= -1, s=-1/2) ,
(n=2, l=1, m= -1, s=+1/2)

36
 Solution:
1. c) (n=4, l=2, m= +1, s=-1/2) or
(n=4, l=2, m= +1, s=+1/2) or
(n=4, l=2, m= 0, s=-1/2) or
(n=4, l=2, m= 0, s=+1/2) or
(n=4, l=2, m= -1, s=-1/2) or
(n=4, l=2, m= -1, s=+1/2) or
(n=4, l=2, m= +2, s=-1/2) or
(n=4, l=2, m= +2, s=+1/2) or
(n=4, l=2, m= -2, s=-1/2) or
(n=4, l=2, m= -2, s=+1/2)

37
 LEARNING CHECK

Determine whether the following sets of quantum numbers are

acceptable or not.

a) ( n = 3, l = 1, m = -1, s = +2 )

b) ( n = 2, l = -1, m = 1, s = -1/2 )

c) ( n = 2, l = 0, m = 0, s = +1/2 )

d) ( n = 3, l = 1, m = +2, s = +1/2 )
 LEARNING CHECK

Give all possible values of n , l , m and s for an electron in

orbital of 3d

n=3
l =2
m = -2,-1,0,+1,+2
s = +1/2 @ -1/2
HYBRIDIZATIO
N
 Definition

The phenomenon of mixing up of atomic

orbitals of similar energies and formation of
equivalent number of entirely new orbitals of
identical shape and energy is known as
"hybridization" and the new orbitals so formed
is called as "hybrid orbitals".
 Formation Hybrid orbitals

• The purpose of hybridization is to produce

new orbitals which have equivalent energy
• Number of hybrid orbitals is equal to number
of pure atomic orbitals used in the
hybridization process.
• Only the central atoms will be involved in
hybridization
• Hybrid orbitals have different shapes from
original atomic orbitals

42
HYBRIDIZATI
ON OF
ORBITALS
SP
SP 2

SP 3
 sp3 hybridization

• one s orbital and three p orbitals

belonging to the same shell of an atom
are mixed to form four sp3 hybrid
orbitals
• the geometry of the four hybrid orbitals is
tetrahedral with the angle of 109.5o .

44
 sp3 hybrid
• Mixing of s and three p orbitals
sp3

sp3
sp3

sp3

45
 EXAMPLE : METHANE CH4

Ground state : C : 1s2 2s2 2p2 Lewis Structure

H
H C H
H

Excitation: have 4 unpaired electrons

C hybrid
 Example : Methane, CH4

shape: tetrahedral

47
 sp hybridization
2

• one s orbital and two p orbitals belonging

to the same shell of an atom are mixed
to form three sp2 hybrid orbitals
• the geometry of the three hybrid orbitals
is trigonal planar with the angle of 120o

48
 EXAMPLE : BF3 MOLECULE

Excitation: have 3 unpaired electrons

EXAMPLE : BF3 MOLECULE
 sp hybridization
• one s orbital and one p orbital in the
same main shell of an atom are
mixed to form two sp hybrid
orbitals
• the geometry of the two hybrid
orbitals is linear with the angle of
180o

51
 EXAMPLE : BeF2 MOLECULE

Excitation: have 2 unpaired electrons

EXAMPLE : BeF2 MOLECULE
 How do I predict the hybridization of the central atom?

Count the number of lone pairs AND the number

of atoms bonded to the central atom

No of Lone Pairs
+
No of Bonded Atoms Hybridization Examples

2 sp BeCl2

3 sp2 BF3

4 sp3 CH4, NH3, H2O

 LEARNING CHECK

The proton number of element P and Qis 13 and 8 respectively.

(a) Write the formula of the compound formed between P and Q
(b) Describe the formation of this compound using Lewis symbol.
 LEARNING CHECK

Explain why the beryllium hydride molecule BeH2(g) has a linear shape.

The two hydrogen atoms are then covalently bonded to the berylium atom
through the overlap ofthe s orbitals with the sp hybrid orbitals.
 LEARNING CHECK

1) Explain why the BF3 molecule has a trigonal planar shape

2) Draw Lewis diagrams to show the formation of of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) by
using Lewis dot symbols
3) Draw Lewis diagrams to show the formation of ionic compounds in the reaction
below: (Li = 3, F = 9)
Lithium + fluorine → lithium fluoride
 LEARNING CHECK

1) X, Y and Z represent the elements with proton numbers 9,16 and 19

i. Write the electronic configurations
ii. Show the dot-and cross diagrams for the compounds formed
between X and Y, X and Z, Y and Z
Electronic configuration
according to Hund's rule,
Aufbau's principle and
Pauli Exclusion
principle
 INTRODUCTION

● The electronic configuration of an atom show how

electron are filled in the orbital.
● Electronic configuration describes the arrangement of
electron in an atom.
 ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION
To enable us to do electronic configuration, we have to
obey the following rules:

a) The Aufbau Principle

b) The Pauli Exclusion Principle

c) The Hund rule

 THE AUFBAU PRINCIPLE

● State that electrons in an atom should be filled into the orbitals in the
order of an increasing energy.

● This means that electrons should occupy the orbital with the lowest
energy first before it enters the ones with higher energy.
 THE AUFBAU PRINCIPLE

● For example, Li has 3 electrons. The first two electrons should be

placed into ls orbital (the lowest energy level) first, followed by the third
electron into the 2s orbital.
RELATIVE ENERGY LEVEL OF
ATOMIC ORBITALS

Orbital energy levels

in a many-electron atom
To follow the order of increasing energy of the orbitals, we can refer to the energy
diagram in Figure above. Order of orbitals to be filled can also be simplified by
drawing arrows on the following diagram
The following diagram shows how to read the
electron designation:
 ORDER OF ORBITALS (FILLING) IN
MULTI-ELECTRON ATOM
● The order of filling orbitals is:

1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s

● Start with the 1s orbital and move downward, following the arrows.
Example:

(a) 4 Be = Electronic configuration 4Be : 1s2 2s2

(b) 10 Ne = Electronic configuration 10Ne : 1s2 2s2 2p6

 PAULI EXCLUSION
PRINCIPLE
• The principle states that NO two electrons in an atom can
have the same four quantum numbers (n, l, m, s).
• “Each orbital can be occupied by two electrons of
opposite spins only. The spins are represented by and
.
 PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
• Example Li (3 electrons). From the orbital diagram, we can deduce the set of
quantum number for each electron.

• Note that none of the electrons in the orbital diagram has the same set of four
quantum numbers
 HUND’S RULE

● States that when electrons are added to the orbital of

equivalent energy (degenerate orbitals), each orbital are
filled singly with electron of the same spin first before it is
paired.
● The electron in half-filled orbitals have the same spins,
that is, parallel spins.
 HUND’S RULE

• The 2px 2py and 2pz orbitals are the degenerate orbitals (orbitals with
equivalent energy).
• They are half-filled, each with unpaired electron of the same spin.
• The half-filled arrangement contributes to the stability of the atom.
• The electronic configuration of N atom is 1s² 2s2 2p3.
 LEARNING CHECK

Write the electronic configuration of the following atom or ion:

i. C
ii. Ne
iii. Al3+
iv. Cl-
 THE ANOMALOUS ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS OF CR AND CU
• Cr and Cu have electron configurations which are inconsistent with the
Aufbau principle. The anomalous are explained on the basis that a filled or
half-filled orbital is more stable.
•
Expected (Aufbau
Element Observed/actual
Principle)

Cr (Z=24) 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s2 3d4 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s1 3d5

Cu (Z=29) 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d9 4s2 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d10 4s1

 If you can't fly, then RUN.
If you can't run, then WALK.
If you can't walk, then CRAWL.
But whatever you do,
YOU HAVE TO KEEP MOVING.