Line Following Robot

 A line-following robot commonly known as LFR is basically an

intelligent device that detects the line and follows the path on the
floor. The path can generally be a visible black line on the floor, or
it may be a white floor with a high contrast color. The basic
principle of the LFR is based on the incident of light on the
surface.

 Line following robot is the most common and often the first
robot-based project that students make in their academics. The
basic working of the Line following robot is that it follows the
black line on the white surface. It means the black line serves as
the track of the robot and by using an IC L293D to drive the two
motors.
Analog and Digital Signals

 "Digital" refers to information or signals represented  "Analog" refers to information or signals that vary
using discrete values, typically in binary code (0s and continuously over a range. It can take any value
1s). within that range, like the smooth change in volume
on a radio.
 Unlike analog, which varies continuously, digital
information is broken into distinct steps or pieces,  Analog signals represent data with a seamless,
making it easier to process, store, and transmit infinite range of values, but they can be more
accurately. susceptible to interference
 Difference between Analog and Digital Signal

Analog Signals Digital Signals

Continuous signals Discrete signals
Represented by sine waves Represented by square waves

Human voice, natural sound, analog electronic devices are Computers, optical drives, and other electronic devices
a few examples

Continuous range of values Discontinuous values

Only used in analog devices Suited for digital electronics like computers, mobiles and
more

Temperature, current, voltage, voice, pressure, and speed Data storage in computer memory is one of the examples
are all examples of analog signals. of digital signals.

Used in landline phones, thermometers, radios, and other Used in computers, keyboards, digital watches, and other
devices. electronic devices.
Components Required
•L293D Motor Driver IC

•Geared Motors x 2

•Robot Chassis

•IR Sensor Module x 2

•Black Tape (Electrical

Insulation Tape)

•Connecting Wires

•Power supply

•Battery Connector

•Battery Holder
Sensor

A sensor is a device that detects and measures physical properties,

such as temperature, light, or motion, and converts this information
into a readable signal or data. Sensors are used in many applications,
from smartphones to industrial equipment, to monitor and respond
to changes in the environment.

To compare a sensor with human senses:

Human Senses: Our senses (sight, hearing, touch, Sensors: Similar to human senses, sensors detect
taste, and smell) detect various physical stimuli (like specific physical properties (such as
light, sound, pressure, chemicals) and send that temperature, light, or motion) and convert this
information to our brain to interpret and respond. information into data that machines or systems
can use. For example, a temperature sensor
works like our sense of touch, detecting heat and
providing that information to a system.
 IR Sensor
 The IR sensor or infrared sensor is one kind of electronic component, used to
detect specific characteristics in its surroundings through emitting or detecting IR
radiation.
 Generally in the IR spectrum, the radiation of all the targets radiation and some
kind of thermal radiation are not visible to the eyes but can be sensed through IR
sensors.
 In this sensor, an IR LED is used as an emitter whereas the photodiode is used as
a detector. Once an infrared light drops on the photodiode, the output voltage &
resistance will be changed in proportion to the received IR light magnitude.

IR Sensor Working Principle

 An infrared sensor includes two parts namely the emitter & the receiver (transmitter & receiver), so this is
jointly called an optocoupler or a photo-coupler. Here, IR LED is used as an emitter whereas the IR
photodiode is used as a receiver.

 The photodiode used in this is very sensitive to the infrared light generated through an infrared LED. The
resistance of photodiode & output voltage can be changed in proportion to the infrared light obtained. This
is the fundamental IR sensor working principle.
Permanent Magnet DC Motor
A Motors that transform direct current electrical energy into mechanical
energy are known as DC motors. Almost all types of DC motors have an
internal mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic, that
changes the direction of current in a part of the motor on a regular basis.

A Permanent Magnet DC (PMDC) Motor is a DC motor with permanent

magnet poles. The magnets are radially magnetised and placed on the
cylindrical steel stator's inner sides. This motor does not have a field coil.
It generates torque by the interaction of armature flux and permanent
flux. Basically, permanent magnets are used to generate the magnetic
field required for DC motor operation.

Working principle of DC motor (Flemings left hand rule)

When kept in a magnetic field, a current-carrying conductor gains
torque and develops a tendency to move. In short, when electric
fields and magnetic fields interact, a mechanical force arises. This is
the principle on which the DC motors work.
Construction of Permanent Magnet
DC Motor (PMDC Motor)

A Permanent Magnet DC (PMDC motor) is made up of

two major parts. An armature and a stator. The stator,
which is a steel cylinder. The magnets are placed on the
stator (cylinder's) inner sides. The N-pole and S-pole of
each permanent magnet are alternately facing the
armature. That is, if one magnet's N-pole is facing the
armature, the next magnet's S-pole is also facing the
armature.

The moving section consists of armature and bearings.

Brushes and a commutator are included in the armature.
The armature is consist of slots that contain the armature
winding. Brushes are used to supply current to the
commutator, which functions as a converting device. By
connecting the brushes' terminals to the DC supply, the
armature receives power.
The working principle of a Permanent
Magnet DC Motor (PMDC Motor)
An armature rotates inside a magnetic field in a PMDC
motor. A magnet is used to create the magnetic field. It
may be an electromagnet or a permanent magnet,
depending on the type of magnet used. Between the
armature field flux and the permanent magnet field flux,
magnetic induction occurs. A torque is generated by the
interaction of these fluxes.

Applications of Permanent Magnet DC

Motor (PMDC Motor)
Permanent magnet dc motors are widely used in various
market segments such as like Coordinate measuring
machine (CMM), Lawn Mower, Door Automation,
Laboratory Fermenter, Tennis ball machine, cricket
bowling machines, AGVs, Laboratory stirrers & Shakers,
Door Automations, Solar Cleaning robots and many
others.
L293D Dual H-Bridge Motor Driver IC
 L293D motor Driver IC is an integrated circuit that can drive
two motors simultaneously and is usually used to control
the motors in an autonomous system. This motor driver IC
enables us to drive a DC motor in either direction and also
control the speed of the motor.

 L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver IC. H-bridge is the

simplest circuit for controlling a low current-rated motor.
One H-bridge is capable to drive a DC motor bidirectional.
L293D is a current enhancing IC. It can also act as a
switching device.
 The L293D is a 16-pin Integrated circuit, with eight pins, on
each side, dedicated to the controlling of a motor. There
are 2 input pins, 2 output pins and 1 enable pin for each
motor. The L293D IC is designed to provide bidirectional
drive currents of up to 600-mA at voltages from 4.5 V to 36
V. It is designed to drive inductive loads such as relays,
solenoids, DC & bipolar stepping motors, as well as other
high-current/high-voltage loads in positive-supply
applications.
 PIN Diagram
•Pin 1 ( Enable1,2): When this pin is given High or Logic 1, the left part of the IC will work and when it is
low, the left part doesn’t work. So, this pin is the Master Control pin for the left part of the IC
•Pin 2 (Input 1): When this pin is High or Logic 1, output 1 becomes High. i.e. the current will flow
through output 1
•Pin 3 (Output 1): This pin is connected to one of the terminal of motor 1
•Pin 4, Pin 5 ( GND): These pins should be connected to the circuit’s ground
•Pin 6 (Output 2): This pin is connected to one of the terminal of motor 1
•Pin 7 (Input 2): When this pin is given High or Logic 1, output 2 becomes high i.e. the current will flow
through output 2
•Pin 8 (VCC2): This is the voltage required to run the motor. It can be greater than IC voltage Vcc 1. If we
are driving 12 V DC motors then make sure that this pin is supplied with 12 V
•Pin 9 (Enable 3,4): When this pin is given High or logic 1, the right part of the IC will work, and when it
is low the right part doesn’t work. So, this pin is the Master Control pin for the right part of the IC
•Pin 10 (Input 3): When this pin is given High or Logic 1, output 3 becomes high i.e the current will flow
through output 3
•Pin 11 (Output 3): This pin is connected to one of the terminal of motor 2
•Pin 12,13 (GND): These pins should be connected to the circuit’s ground
•Pin 14 (Output 4): This pin is connected to one of the terminals of motor 2
•Pin 15 (Input 4): When this pin is given High or Logical 1, output 4 becomes High i.e. the current will
flow through output 4
•Pin 16 (VCC1): This pin provides power to the IC. So, this pin should be supplied with a 5V
 WORKING OF LINE FOLLOWER

 The robot travels along the line using the iR

sensor.
 The sensor has two diodes, one diode sends infrared
light, the other diode receives the reflected light from
the surface.
 When the infrared rays fall on the white surface, they
are reflected back.
 When infrared light fall a black surface, the light is
absorbed by the black surface and no rays are
reflected back, so the photodiode does not receive
any light.
 The sensor measures the amount of reflected light
and sends the value to the L293D.
 There is a potentiometer on the sensor, with which
we can adjust the sensitivity of the sensor.
The H-Bridge circuit

An H-bridge is a simple circuit that lets

you control a DC motor to go backward
or forward.

 If you close switches 1 and 4, you

have plus connected to the left side
of the motor and minus to the other
side. And the motor will start
spinning in one direction.
 If you instead close switches 2 and 3,
you have plus connected to the right
side and minus to the left side. And
the motor spins in the opposite
direction.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM