102046704 Compiler Design

LECTURE 1
Preliminaries Required
■ Basic knowledge of programming languages.
■ Basic knowledge of FSA and CFG.
■ Knowledge of a high programming language for
the programming assignments.

Textbook:
Alfred V. Aho, Ravi Sethi, and Jeffrey D. Ullman,
“Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools”
Addison-Wesley, 1986.
Lex & Yacc. John R. Levine, Tony Mason, Doug
Brown. O'Reilly & Associates
102046704 1992.
Compiler
ISBN:1565920007
Design 2
Examination Scheme

■Internal Tests : 40 Marks

■Assignments and Term work : 20 Marks
■External Theory : 60 Marks
■External Practical : 30 Marks
■Total : 150

102046704 Compiler Design 3

Course Outline
■ Introduction
■ Lexical Analysis
■ Syntax Analysis
■Context Free Grammars
■Top-Down Parsing, LL Parsing
■Bottom-Up Parsing, LR Parsing
■ Syntax-Directed Translation
■Attribute Definitions
■Evaluation of Attribute Definitions

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Course Outline
■ Semantic Analysis, Type Checking
■ Run-Time Organization
■ Intermediate Code Generation
■ Optimizations

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 COMPILERS

source COMPILE target program

( Normally the equivalent program in
program
( Normally a program written in R machine code – relocatable object file)
a high-level programming language)

error
messages

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Other Applications
■ In addition to the development of a compiler, the
techniques used in compiler design can be
applicable to many problems in computer science.
■Techniques used in a lexical analyzer can be
used in text editors, information retrieval
system, and pattern recognition programs.

■Techniques used in a parser can be used in a

query processing system such as SQL.

■Many software having a complex front-end may

need techniques used in compiler design.
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Other Applications
■A symbolic equation solver which takes an
equation as input. That program should parse
the given input equation.

■Most of the techniques used in compiler design

can be used in Natural Language Processing
(NLP) systems.

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Major Parts of Compilers
■ There are two major parts of a compiler: Analysis
and Synthesis

■ In analysis phase, an intermediate representation

is created from the given source program.
■Lexical Analyzer, Syntax Analyzer and Semantic
Analyzer are the parts of this phase.

■ In synthesis phase, the equivalent target program

is created from this intermediate representation.
■ Intermediate Code Generator, Code Generator, and Code
Optimizer are the parts of this phase.

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 Phases of A Compiler
Source Lexical Syntax Semantic Intermediate Code Code Target
Program Analyzer Analyzer Analyzer Code Generator Optimizer Generator Program

• Each phase transforms the source program from one representation

into another representation.

• They communicate with error handlers.

• They communicate with the symbol table.

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Lexical Analyzer
■ Lexical Analyzer reads the source program
character by character and returns the tokens of
the source program.

■ A token describes a pattern of characters having

same meaning in the source program. (such as
identifiers, operators, keywords, numbers,
delimeters and so on)
Ex: newval := oldval + 12
⇒ tokens:
⇒ newval – identifier
⇒ := - assignment operator
102046704 Compiler
⇒ Oldval – identifier
Design 11
Lexical Analyzer

■ Puts information about identifiers into the symbol

table.
■ Regular expressions are used to describe tokens
(lexical constructs).
■ A (Deterministic) Finite State Automaton can be
used in the implementation of a lexical analyzer.

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Syntax Analyzer
■ A Syntax Analyzer creates the syntactic structure
(generally a parse tree) of the given program.
■ A syntax analyzer is also called as a parser.
■ A parse tree describes a syntactic structure.
assgstmt • In a parse tree, all terminals are at leaves.

identifier := expression • All inner nodes are non-terminals in

a context free grammar.
newval expression + expression

identifier number

oldval 12

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Syntax Analyzer (CFG)
■ The syntax of a language is specified by a context
free grammar (CFG).
■ The rules in a CFG are mostly recursive.
■ A syntax analyzer checks whether a given program
satisfies the rules implied by a CFG or not.
■If it satisfies, the syntax analyzer creates a
parse tree for the given program.
■ Ex: We use BNF (Backus Naur Form) to specify a
CFG
assgstmt -> identifier := expression
expression -> identifier
expression -> number
102046704 Compiler
expression Design + expression
-> expression 14
Syntax Analyzer versus
Lexical Analyzer
■ Which constructs of a program should be
recognized by the lexical analyzer, and which ones
by the syntax analyzer?

■Both of them do similar things; But the lexical

analyzer deals with simple non-recursive
constructs of the language.

■The syntax analyzer deals with recursive

constructs of the language.

■The lexical102046704
analyzer Compiler
simplifies the job of the
syntax analyzer.
Design 15
Parsing Techniques
■Depending on how the parse tree is
created, there are different parsing
techniques.

■These parsing techniques are categorized

into two groups:
■Top-Down Parsing, Bottom-Up Parsing

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Parsing Techniques
■ Top-Down Parsing:
■Construction of the parse tree starts at
the root, and proceeds towards the
leaves.

■Efficient top-down parsers can be easily

constructed by hand.

■Recursive Predictive Parsing, Non-

Recursive Predictive Parsing (LL Parsing).
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Parsing Techniques
■ Bottom-Up Parsing:
■Construction of the parse tree starts at
the leaves, and proceeds towards the
root.

■Normally efficient bottom-up parsers are

created with the help of some software
tools.

■Bottom-up parsing is also known as shift-

reduce parsing.
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Parsing Techniques
■Operator-Precedence Parsing – simple,
restrictive, easy to implement

■LR Parsing – much general form of shift-

reduce parsing, LR, SLR, LALR

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Semantic Analyzer
■ A semantic analyzer checks the source program for
semantic errors and collects the type information
for the code generation.

■ Type-checking is an important part of semantic

analyzer.

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Semantic Analyzer
■ Normally semantic information cannot be
represented by a context-free language used in
syntax analyzers.

■ Context-free grammars used in the syntax analysis

are integrated with attributes (semantic rules)
■ the result is a syntax-directed translation,
■ Attribute grammars
■ Ex:
newval := oldval + 12

■The type of the identifier newval must match with

type of the expression (oldval+12)
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Intermediate Code
Generation
■ A compiler may produce an explicit intermediate
codes representing the source program.
■ These intermediate codes are generally machine
(architecture independent). But the level of
intermediate codes is close to the level of
machine codes.
■ Ex:
newval := oldval * fact + 1

id1 := id2 * id3 + 1

MULT id2,id3,temp1 Intermediates Codes

(Quadraples)102046704 Compiler
ADD Design
temp1,#1,temp2 22
Code Optimizer (for
Intermediate Code
Generator)
■ The code optimizer optimizes the code produced
by the intermediate code generator in the terms of
time and space.

■ Ex:

MULT id2,id3,temp1
ADD temp1,#1,id1

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Code Generator
■ Produces the target language in a specific
architecture.
■ The target program is normally is a relocatable
object file containing the machine codes.

■ Ex:
( assume that we have an architecture with instructions whose at
least one of its operands is
a machine register)

MOVE id2,R1
MULT id3,R1
ADD #1,R1
MOVE102046704
R1,id1 Compiler Design 24