Propositional logic

Maria Tamoor
Agenda
Course policies
Logic

Lecture 1 2
Course Policies, Schedule,
Syllabus
Quizzes can be online or on
campus There is no such thing as
make-up quiz/test or make-up
exam.
There will be one extra quiz
Late assignments will be graded
after 50% deduction. Students are
encouraged to submit assignments
before time.
Lecture 1 3
Tentative Grading criteria
Quizzes/Tests 20%
Assignments 10%
Mid Term 30%
Final Examination 40%

Lecture 1 4
Textbook

Discrete Mathematics and Its Application

by Kenneth H. Rosen

Use lecture notes as study guide.

5
 Quick Overview
Discrete Math is essentially that
branch of mathematics that does
not depend on limits; in this
sense, it is the anti-thesis of
Calculus. As computers are
discrete object operating one
jumpy, discontinuous step at a
time, Discrete Math is the right
framework for describing
precisely Computer Science
Lecture 1concepts. 6
 Logic
Foundations of Logic:
Mathematical Logic is a tool for
working with elaborate compound
statements. It includes:
 A formal language for expressing
them.
 A concise notation for writing
them.
 A methodology for objectively
reasoning
Lecture 1 about their truth or7
 Section 1.1: Logic
We intuitively know that Truth and
Falsehood are opposites. That
statements describe the world and can
be true/false. That the world is made
up of objects and that objects can be
organized to form collections.
.

Lecture 1 8
 False, True, Statements
Axiom: False is the opposite to Truth.
A statement is a description of
something.
Examples of statements:
 I have -17 students in dm class.
 You always tell the truth.
Q’s: Which statements are True? False?
Both? Neither?

Lecture 1 9
 False, True, Statements
True: I live in Lahore.
False: We live on MARS

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 Propositions
To avoid painful head-aches, we ban
silly non-sense and avoid the most
general type of statements limiting
ourselves to statements with valid
truth-values instead:
DEF: A proposition is a statement
that is true or false.

Lecture 1 11
 Propositions
Propositional Logic is a static discipline of
statements which lack semantic
content.
E.G. p = “Clinton was the president.”
q = “The list of U.S. presidents
includes
Clinton.”
r = “Lions like to sleep.”
All p and q are no more closely related
than q and r are, in propositional
calculus. They are both equally related
as all three statements are true.
Lecture 1 12
Semantically, however, p and q are the
 Propositions
So why waste time on such matters?
Propositional logic is the study of how
simple propositions can come together
to make more complicated propositions.
If the simple propositions get some
meaning then the complicated
proposition would have meaning as
well, and then finding out the truth
value is actually important!

Lecture 1 13
 Compound Propositions
In Propositional Logic, we assume a
collection of atomic propositions
are given: p, q, r, s, t, ….
Then we form compound
propositions by using logical
connectives (logical operators)
to form propositional “molecules”.

Lecture 1 14
Examples of proposition
Propositions??

FCC university is in Lahore

Do you like Computer discipline?
There are x students in this class.

FCC is in Lahore Punjab

There is a computer Science Dept in FCC
university.
1+1 = 2
What is your name?
2+2= 3
5+x=7
Lecture 1 15
 Logical Connectives
Operator Symb Usage Java
ol
Negation  not !
Conjunctio  and &&
n
Disjunction  or ||
Exclusive  xor (p||q)&&(!p||!q)
or
Conditiona  if,the p?q:true
l n
Bicondition
Lecture 1
 iff (p&&q)||(!p&&!q)
16
 Compound Propositions:
Examples
p = “Cruise ships only go on big rivers.”
q = “Cruise ships go on the Hudson.”
r = “The Hudson is a big river.”
r=
“The Hudson is not a big river.”
pq =
“Cruise ships only go on big rivers and go on the
Hudson.”
pq  r =
“If cruise ships only go on big rivers and go on
the
Lecture 1 Hudson, then the Hudson is a big river.” 17
 Negation
This just turns a false proposition to
true and the opposite for a true
proposition.
EG: p = “23 = 15 +7”
p happens to be false, so  p is true.
In Java or C, “!” plays the same role:
!(23 == 15+7)
has the boolean value true
whenever evaluated.
Lecture 1 18
 Find the negation of the
proposition
"Today is Friday.'‘
Express this in simple English.
"It is not the case (that today is
Friday."
This negation can he more simply
expressed by
"Today
Lecture 1 is not Friday," 19
 Negation – truth table
Logical operators are defined by
truth tables –tables which give
the output of the operator in the
right-most column.
Here is the truth table for negation:
p p
F T
T F

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 Conjunction
Conjunction is a binary operator in
that it operates on two
propositions when creating
compound proposition. On the
other hand, negation is a unary
operator.

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 Conjunction
Conjunction is supposed to
encapsulate what happens when
we use the word “and” in English.
I.e., for “p and q ” to be true, it
must be the case that BOTH p is
true, as well as q. If one of these is
false, than the compound
statement is false as well.

Lecture 1 22
 Conjunction
EG. p = “Clinton was the president.”
q = “Monica was the president.”
r = “The meaning of is is important.”
Assuming p and r are true, while q false.
Out of pq, pr, qr
which are true??
only pr is true.
Java: x==3 && x!=3
T or F ??
Evaluates to false for any possible value of23
Lecture 1
 Conjunction – truth table

p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

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 Disjunction – truth table
Conversely, disjunction is true when
at least one of the components is
true:
p q p q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

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 Disjunction
Note: English version of disjunction
“or” does not always satisfy the
assumption that one of p/q being
true implies that “p or q ” is true.
Q: Can someone come up with an
example?

Lecture 1 26
 Disjunction
A: guests are served with soup or
salad.
Most restaurants definitely don’t
allow you to get both soup and
salad so that the statement is false
when both soup and salad is
served.
To address this situation, exclusive-
or is introduced next.
Lecture 1 27
 Exclusive-Or – truth table
p q p q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

Note: in this course any usage of “or”

will have the logical operator 
as opposed to the exclusive-or.
Lecture 1 28
A simple exercise

“It didn’t rain last night.”

“The lawn was wet this morning, and
it didn’t rain last night.”
“Either the lawn wasn’t wet this
morning, or it rained last night,
or the sprinklers came on last
Lecture 1
night.” 29
 p = “I will earn an A in this
course,”
q = “I will drop this course,”
I will earn an A or I will drop this
course.
Which is suitable operator?


Lecture 1 30
Lecture 1 31
Lecture 1 32
 Conditional (Implication)
This one is probably the least
intuitive. It’s like English usage of
“if,then” or “implies”.
DEF: p  q is true if q is true, or if p
is false. In the final case (p is true
while q is false) p  q is false.
Semantics: “p implies q ” is true if
one can mathematically derive q
from p.
Lecture 1 33
 Conditional -- truth table
p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

IF you get > 90 marks in final exams then

your grade will be A
Only IF you get > 90 marks in final exams
then
Lecture 1 your grade will be A 34
 If Wasim Akram is captain of
Pakistani team then Pakistan will
win this match

Only If Wasim Akram is captain of

Pakistani team then Pakistan will
win this match

Lecture 1 35
Examples of Implications
 “If this lecture ever ends, then the
sun will rise tomorrow.” True or
False?
 “If Tuesday is a day of the week,
then you are a penguin.” True or
False?
. “If 1+1=6, then Obama is still
president.” True or False?
 “If the moon is made of green
Lecture 1 36
Examples of Implications
 “If this lecture ever ends, then the
sun will rise tomorrow.” True or
False?
 “If Tuesday is a day of the week,
then you are a penguin.” True or
False?
. “If 1+1=6, then Obama is still
president.” True or False?
 “If the moon is made of green
Lecture 1 37
Lecture 1 38
Converse, Inverse,
Contrapositive

contrapositive

Lecture 1 39
Examples
If today is Thursday, then I have a
test today.
Converse:
If I have a test today , then today
is Thursday. q
Contrapositive:
If I don’t have a test today then
today is not Thursday.
Inverse: If today is not Thursday,
then
Lecture 1 I don’t have a test today 40
 Bi-Conditional -- truth
table
For p  q to be true, p and q must have
the same truth value. Else, p q is false:
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Q : Which operator is  the opposite of?

Lecture 1 41
Logical Equivalence
p  q and  p  q are logically
equivalent
Truth tables are the simplest way to
prove such facts.
Any conditional and its
contrapositive are logically
equivalent and Contrapositive of p 
q is  q   p
We will learn other ways later.

42
 . The contrapositive of “If you get
100% in this course, you will get
an A+” is
“If you do not get an A+ in this
course, you did not get 100%”.

Lecture 1 43
 Bi-Conditional
A:  has exactly the opposite truth table
as .

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 Bi-Conditional
The biconditional p ↔ q states that p
is true if and only if (IFF) q is true.
p = “You get full score in all exams
and all homework.”
q = “You get an A+ in ICS 141.”
p ↔ q = “If, and only if, you get full
score in all exams and all
homework, you get an A+ in Comp
113.”
Lecture 1 45
 Bit Strings
Electronic computers achieve their
calculations inside semiconducting
materials. For reliability, only two
stable voltage states are used and so
the most fundamental operations are
carried out by switching voltages
between these two stable states.
In logic, only two truth values are allowed.
Thus propositional logic is ideal for
modeling computers. High voltage
values are modeled by True, which for
brevity we call the number 1, while low
voltage
Lecture 1 values are modeled by False or 46
 Bit Strings
Thus voltage memory stored in a
computer can be represented by a
sequence of 0’s and 1’s such as
01 1011 0010 1001
Another portion of the memory might look
like
10 0010 1111 1001
Each of the number in the sequence is
called a bit, and the whole sequence of
bits is called a bit string.
Lecture 1 47
 Bit Strings
It turns out that the analogs of the logical
operations can be carried out quite
easily inside the computer, one bit at a
time. This can then be transferred to
whole bit strings. For example, the
exclusive-or of the previous bit strings
is:
01 1011 0010 1001
 10 0010 1111 1001
11 1001 1101 0000
Lecture 1 48
Bitwise operations
E.g.:
01 1011 0110
11 0001 1101
11 1011 1111 Bit-wise OR
01 0001 0100 Bit-wise AND
10 1010 1011 Bit-wise XOR

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Exercises
q = “You miss the final exam.”
r = “You pass the course.”
Express q  r in English.
1. Construct a truth table for p q.
2. Can one determine relative salaries of
F (Fannie), J (Janice) and M (Maggie)
from the following?
1. If F is not highest paid, then J is.
2. If J is not lowest paid, then M is highest
paid.

Lecture 1 50
Exercise question
Q 3,4,5,9,21,24,25 of section 1.1

Lecture 1 51