Ultrasonic Testing

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 High School sound

• ..\..\..\Downloads\High School Sound.html

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 Introduction
• This module presents an introduction to the NDT
method of ultrasonic testing.
• Ultrasonic testing uses high frequency sound
energy to conduct examinations and make
measurements.
• Ultrasonic examinations can be conducted on a
wide variety of material forms including castings,
forgings, welds, and composites.
• A considerable amount of information about the
part being examined can be collected, such as the
presence of discontinuities, part or coating
thickness; and acoustical properties can often be
correlated to certain properties of the material.
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 Outline
• Applications
• Basic Principles of sound generation
• Pulse echo and through transmission testing
• Inspection applications
• Equipment
• Transducers
• Instrumentation
• Reference Standards
• Data presentation
• Advantages and Limitations
• Glossary of terms
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 Basic Principles of Sound
• Sound is produced by a vibrating body and travels in the
form of a wave.
• Sound waves travel through materials by vibrating the
particles that make up the material.
• The pitch of the sound
is determined by the
frequency of the wave
(vibrations or cycles
completed in a certain
period of time).
• Ultrasound is sound
with a pitch too high
to be detected by the
human ear.

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 Basic Principles of Sound (cont.)
• The measurement of sound waves from crest to crest
determines its wavelength (λ).
• The time it takes a sound wave to travel a distance of
one complete wavelength is the same amount of time
it takes the source to execute one complete vibration.
• The sound wavelength
is inversely proportional
to its frequency. (λ = 1/f)
• Several wave modes of
vibration are used in
ultrasonic inspection.
The most common are
longitudinal, shear, and
Rayleigh (surface) waves.

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 Basic Principles of Sound (cont.)
• Ultrasonic waves are very similar to light
waves in that they can be reflected,
refracted, and focused.
• Reflection and refraction occurs when
sound waves interact with interfaces of
differing acoustic properties.
• In solid materials, the vibrational energy
can be split into different wave modes
when the wave encounters an interface
at an angle other than 90 degrees.
• Ultrasonic reflections from the presence
of discontinuities or geometric features
enables detection and location.
• The velocity of sound in a given material
is constant and can only be altered by a
change in the mode of energy.
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 Ultrasound Generation
Ultrasound is generated with a transducer.
A piezoelectric element
in the transducer
converts electrical
energy into mechanical
vibrations (sound), and
vice versa.

The transducer is
capable of both
transmitting and
receiving sound
energy.
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 Generation of Ultrasonic waves

• Piezo-electric transducers utilize the

piezoelectric effect:
• Piezo-electrical materials e.g.
• quartz,
• Barium Titanate and
• Lead Zirconate
• can transform electrical energy into
mechanical energy and vice versa;

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Thickness change in piezo-
electric material

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 More Info on Piezoelctricity

• https://youtu.be/4nbBAG-848c

• https://youtu.be/urJN4aPs4oE

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 3.2.7.1 Ultrasonic Wave
propagation
• Ultrasonic waves are:
• Mechanical waves;
• Consist of vibrations of atomic or molecular
particles about an equilibrium position’
• Behave the same as audible waves
• Can propagate in three modes:
• Longitudinal – compression
• Transverse – shear
• Surface – Rayleigh waves.
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 Longitudinal waves

• Most widely used mode in US

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 Velocity : longitudinal waves

• Velocity C L of longitudinal waves:

E (1   )
CL 
 (1  )(1  2 )

• E = Modulus, ρ = density
• ν = Poisson’s ratio
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 Velocity: liquids & gases

• Where K = compressibility
• Longitudinal waves are quickly propagated
in liquids, gases and elastic solids;
• Propagation occurring by elastic collisions
of one molecule to the next;
• CL= 6000 m/s in steel; 1500 m/s in water
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 Longitudinal or compression waves

• Like speech consist of alternate

compression or dilation of pressure waves;
• These vibration move in the same direction
as the energy of propagation;
• The particle mechanism depends on elastic
interconnections;
• As each particle moves from equilibrium it
pushes on the adjacent particle and
transmits at the velocity of sound

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 Compression Waves

Vibrating
Direction of
Source
propagation

Vibration
Particle
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 Transverse or shear waves

• Particle motion at  to source;

• Exist in materials with shear elasticity
(solids)
• Velocity Cs = 0.55 CL
• Air and water will not support transverse
waves;
• Shear wave motion comparable to whip
like action of rope attached to a wall.

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 Schematic shear waves
Vibrating Source

Particle Vibration for

Longitudinal Waves
Particle vibration for shear
waves

Direction of
Propagation

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Schematic transverse waves

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 Surface waves

• Also known as Raleigh waves;

• Similar to transverse but do not penetrate below
the surface by more than one wavelength;
• Have a velocity of 2% less than transverse
waves;
• Particle motion combination of longitudinal and
transverse waves;
• Thus follow a rolling or orbital particle motion.
• Travel along the flat or curved surface of
relatively thick solid parts.

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Raleigh waves schematic

Direction of
propagation
One
Wavelength
Elliptical particle depth
vibration of surface
waves

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 Behaviour of Ultrasonic Waves

• Obey the same laws of sound waves;

• Thus are reflected and refracted at the
interfaces with two media of differing
sound velocity;
• Thus Snell’s law is obeyed:

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Reflection and Refraction

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 Acoustic Impedance

• Determines the relative amounts reflected

and refracted;
• Z = ρC
• The relative amounts reflected or refracted
depend on the relative impedances (Z1/Z2)
and the angle of incidence.

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 Mode Conversion vs Angle of
incidence
• Only when US waves are incident at right
angles between two materials does
transmission and reflection occur at the
interface with no change in beam direction;
• At any other angle:
• mode conversion can occur;
• A change in the nature of the wave motion
• and refraction
• A change in the direction of propagation

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 Mode change

• Change may affect whole or portion of the

beam;
• Sum of total change is proportional to the
angle of incidence α and the velocity CLi
leaving the interface.

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 Mode Conversion schematic

• If α increases such that β is

90, the refracted
longitudinal wave no longer
propagates in M2 leaving a
refracted (mode converted)
shear wave in M2;
• The value of α known as
α1 :the 1ST CRITICAL
ANGLE.
• β 1 varies according to
SNELL’s law

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 2nd Critical Angle

• If α1 increase until β1 = 900, Cs2 no longer

propagates in M2, leaving a refracted surface
wave (mode converted);
• The value α2 is the 2nd CRITICAL ANGLE;

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2nd Critical angle schematic

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 Importance of Critical angles

• Critical angle are important in US

inspection:
• α = 90 Normal longitudinal beam
inspection;
• α = between α1 and α2 angle beam
inspection;
• α => α2 surface wave inspection on contact
type probes.

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Principles of Ultrasonic Inspection
• Ultrasonic waves are introduced into a material
where they travel in a straight line and at a
constant speed until they encounter a surface.
• At surface interfaces some of the wave energy is
reflected and some is transmitted.
• The amount of reflected or transmitted energy can
be detected and provides information about the
size of the reflector.
• The travel time of the sound can be measured and
this provides information on the distance that the
sound has traveled.
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 Test Techniques
• Ultrasonic testing is a very versatile inspection
method, and inspections can be accomplished in a
number of different ways.
• Ultrasonic inspection techniques are commonly
divided into three primary classifications.
• Pulse-echo and Through Transmission
(Relates to whether reflected or transmitted energy is used)
• Normal Beam and Angle Beam
(Relates to the angle that the sound energy enters the test article)
• Contact and Immersion
(Relates to the method of coupling the transducer to the test
article)

Each of these techniques will be discussed briefly

in the following slides.
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 Test Techniques - Pulse-Echo
• In pulse-echo testing, a transducer sends out a pulse of energy
and the same or a second transducer listens for reflected energy
(an echo).
• Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and the
surfaces of the test article.
• The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus time,
f

which provides the inspector with information about the size

and the location of features that reflect the sound.

initial
pulse
back surface
echo

crack
echo
crack
plate
0 2 4 6 8 10
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UT Instrument Screen
 Test Techniques – Pulse-Echo (cont.)

Digital display
showing signal
generated from
sound reflecting
off back surface.

Digital display
showing the presence
of a reflector midway
through material, with
lower amplitude back
surface reflector.
The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access to only one
side of the material is possible, and it allows the location of
reflectors to be precisely determined.
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Test Techniques – Through-Transmission

• Two transducers located on 1

opposing sides of the test 1

specimen are used. One T R

transducer acts as a transmitter,

the other as a receiver.
• Discontinuities in the sound path T R

will result in a partial or total loss 2

of sound being transmitted and
be indicated by a decrease in the
received signal amplitude.
• Through transmission is useful in 1
1

detecting discontinuities that are

not good reflectors, and when 2
signal strength is weak. It does
not provide depth information.
0 2 4 6 8 10
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Test Techniques – Through-Transmission

Digital display
showing received
sound through
material
thickness.

Digital display
showing loss of
received signal
due to presence
of a discontinuity
in the sound field.

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Test Techniques – Normal and Angle Beam

• In normal beam testing, the sound

beam is introduced into the test
article at 90 degree to the surface.
• In angle beam testing, the sound
beam is introduced into the test
article at some angle other than
90.
• The choice between normal and
angle beam inspection usually
depends on two considerations:
- The orientation of the feature of
interest – the sound should be
directed to produce the largest
reflection from the feature.
- Obstructions on the surface of the
part that must be worked around.38
Test Techniques – Contact Vs Immersion
• To get useful levels of sound energy into a material, the air
between the transducer and the test article must be removed.
This is referred to as coupling.
• In contact testing (shown on the previous slides) a couplant
such as water, oil or a gel is applied between the transducer
and the part.
• In immersion testing, the part and the transducer are place in a
water bath. This arrangement allows better movement of the
transducer while maintaining consistent coupling.
• With immersion testing, an echo from the front surface of the
part is seen in the signal but otherwise signal interpretation is
the same for the two techniques.
1 2
IP 1 IP 2 IP = Initial Pulse
FWE FWE FWE = Front Wall
Echo
BWE BWE DE = Defect Echo
DE BWE = Back Wall
Echo

Defect 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
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 Inspection Applications
Some of the applications for which ultrasonic testing may
be employed include:

• Flaw detection (cracks, inclusions, porosity, etc.)

• Erosion & corrosion thickness gauging
• Assessment of bond integrity in adhesively
joined and brazed components
• Estimation of void content in composites and
plastics
• Measurement of case hardening depth in steels
• Estimation of grain size in metals
On the following slides are examples of some
common applications of ultrasonic inspection.
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 Thickness Gauging
• Ultrasonic thickness • Applications
gauging is routinely utilized include piping
in the petrochemical and systems, storage
utility industries to and containment
determine various degrees facilities, and
of corrosion/erosion. pressure vessels.

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 Flaw Detection - Delaminations
Contact, pulse-echo inspection for delaminations
on 36” rolled beam.

Signal showing multiple back

surface echoes in an unflawed area.

Additional echoes indicate

delaminations in the member. 42
 Flaw Detection in Welds
• One of the most widely
used methods of
inspecting weldments is
ultrasonic inspection.
• Full penetration groove
welds lend themselves
readily to angle beam
shear wave examination.

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 Equipment
Equipment for ultrasonic testing is very
diversified. Proper selection is important to
insure accurate inspection data as desired
for specific applications.
In general, there are three basic components
that comprise an ultrasonic test system:
- Instrumentation
- Transducers
- Calibration Standards

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 Transducers
• Transducers are manufactured in a variety of
forms, shapes and sizes for varying applications.
• Transducers are categorized in a number of ways
which include:
- Contact or immersion
- Single or dual element
- Normal or angle beam
• In selecting a transducer
for a given application, it
is important to choose the
desired frequency,
bandwidth, size, and in some cases focusing
which optimizes the inspection capabilities.
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 Contact Transducers (cont.)
• Contact transducers are
available with two piezoelectric
crystals in one housing.
• These transducers are called
dual element transducers.
• One crystal acts as a transmitter,
the other as a receiver.
• This arrangement improves near
surface resolution because the
second transducer does not
need to complete a transmit
function before listening for
echoes.
• Dual elements are commonly
employed in thickness gauging
of thin materials. 47
 Contact Transducers (cont.)
• A way to improve near surface
resolution with a single element
transducer is through the use of a
delay line.
• Delay line transducers have a
plastic piece that is a sound path
that provides a time delay between
the sound generation and reception
of reflected energy.
• Interchangeable pieces make it
possible to configure the transducer
with insulating wear caps or flexible
membranes that conform to rough
surfaces.
• Common applications include
thickness gauging and high
temperature measurements.

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 Transducers (cont.)
• Angle beam transducers
incorporate wedges to
introduce a refracted shear
wave into a material.
• The incident wedge angle is
used with the material velocity
to determine the desired
refracted shear wave
according to Snell’s Law)
• Transducers can use fixed or
variable wedge angles.
• Common application is in weld
examination.

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 Transducers (cont.)
• Immersion transducers are
designed to transmit sound
whereby the transducer and
test specimen are immersed
in a liquid coupling medium
(usually water).
• Immersion transducers
are manufactured with
planar, cylindrical or
spherical acoustic
lenses (focusing lens).

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 Instrumentation
• Ultrasonic equipment is usually purchased to satisfy
specific inspection needs, some users may purchase
general purpose equipment to fulfill a number of
inspection applications.
• Test equipment can be classified as:
• portable or stationary,
• contact or immersion,
• manual or automated.
• Further classification into four general categories:
• D-meters,
• Flaw detectors,
• Industrial and special application.
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 Instrumentation (cont.)
• D-meters or digital
thickness gauge
instruments provide the
user with a digital
(numeric) readout.
• They are designed
primarily for
corrosion/erosion
inspection applications.
• Some instruments provide the user with both a
digital readout and a display of the signal. A
distinct advantage of these units is that they allow
the user to evaluate the signal to ensure that the
digital measurements are of the desired features.
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 Flaw Detectors
• Flaw detectors are
instruments designed
primarily for the inspection
of components for defects.
• However, the signal can be
evaluated to obtain other
information such as material
thickness values.
• Both analog and digital
display.
• Offer the user options of
gating horizontal sweep and
amplitude threshold.

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 Industrial Instruments
• Industrial flaw detection
instruments, provide
users with more options
than standard flaw
detectors.
• May be modulated units
allowing users to tailor
the instrument for their
specific needs.
• Generally not as portable
as standard flaw
detectors.

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 Immersion Instrumentation
• Immersion ultrasonic scanning
systems are used for
automated data acquisition
and imaging.
• They integrate an immersion
tank, ultrasonic
instrumentation, a scanning
bridge, and computer controls.
• The signal strength and/or the
time-of-flight of the signal is
measured for every point in
the scan plan.
• The value of the data is plotted
using colors or shades of gray
to produce detailed images of
the surface or internal features
of a component.

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 Calibration Standards
Calibration is a operation of configuring the
ultrasonic test equipment to known values. This
provides the inspector with a means of comparing
test signals to known measurements.
Calibration standards come in a wide variety of
material types, and configurations due to the
diversity of inspection applications.
Calibration standards are typically manufactured
from materials of the same acoustic properties as
those of the test articles.
The following slides provide examples of specific
types of standards.
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 Calibration Standards (cont.)
Thickness calibration
standards may be flat or
curved for pipe and tubing
applications, consisting of
simple variations in ASTM Distance/Area Amplitude
material thickness.
Distance/Area Amplitude
standards utilize flat bottom
holes or side drilled holes to
establish known reflector NAVSHIPS
size with changes in sound
path form the entry surface.
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 Calibration Standards (cont.)
There are also calibration IIW
standards for use in angle
beam inspections when
flaws are not parallel to
entry surface. DSC DC Rhompas

These standards utilized

side drilled holes, notches,
and geometric SC
configuration to establish
time distance and
amplitude relationships.

ASME Pipe Sec. XI

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 Data Presentation
• Information from ultrasonic testing can be
presented in a number of differing formats.
• Three of the more common formats include:
• A-scan
• B-scan
• C-scan

These three formats will be discussed in the next

few slides.

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 Data Presentation - A-scan
•

Signal Amplitude
A-scan presentation
displays the amount of
received ultrasonic energy
as a function of time.
• Relative discontinuity size
can be estimated by
Time
comparing the signal
amplitude to that from a
known reflector.

Signal Amplitude
• Reflector depth can be
determined by the
position of the signal on
the horizontal sweep.

Time
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 Data Presentation - B-scan
• B-scan presentations
display a profile view
(cross-sectional) of a test
specimen.
• Only the reflector depth in
the cross-section and the
linear dimensions can be
determined.
• A limitation to this display
technique is that
reflectors may be masked
by larger reflectors near
the surface.
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 Data Presentation - C-scan
• The C-scan presentation displays a plan type view
of the test specimen and discontinuities.
• C-scan presentations are produced with an
automated data acquisition system, such as in
immersion scanning.
• Use of A-scan in conjunction with C-scan is
necessary when depth determination is desired.

Photo of a Composite C-Scan Image of 64

Component Internal Features
 Advantage of Ultrasonic Testing
• Sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
• Depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement
is superior to other methods.
• Only single-sided access is needed when pulse-echo
technique is used.
• High accuracy in determining reflector position and
estimating size and shape.
• Minimal part preparation required.
• Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
• Detailed images can be produced with automated
systems.
• Has other uses such as thickness measurements, in
addition to flaw detection.
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 Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing
• Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
• Skill and training is more extensive than with some other
methods.
• Normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of
sound energy into test specimen.
• Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small,
exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
• Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to
inspect due to low sound transmission and high signal noise.
• Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go
undetected.
• Reference standards are required for both equipment
calibration, and characterization of flaws.

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For More Information

The Collaboration for

NDT Education

www.ndt-ed.org

The American Society

for Nondestructive
Testing

www.asnt.org

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 NEXT TOPIC: DYE INSPECTION

• 3.2 Dye-Penetrant Test.ppt

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