PHYS 1201: GENERAL PHYSICS II

Thermal Physics
Temperature and the zeroth law of thermodynamics…

Heat and the Flow of Energy

• Heat is the energy transferred between objects due to a
difference in temperature.
• The total amount of energy in a substance (the sum of all of

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

its kinetic and potential energy) is referred to as its internal
energy.
• Objects are said to be in thermal contact if heat can flow
between them.
• Thermal equilibrium is a situation in which two objects
would not exchange energy by heat or electromagnetic
radiation if they were placed in thermal contact.
• The study of physical processes involving the transfer of

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heat is the area of physics referred to as thermodynamics.
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Temperature and the zeroth law of thermodynamics

Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics
• The zeroth law of
thermodynamics can be stated
as follows:

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

If objects and are separately
in thermal equilibrium with a
third object , then and are in
thermal equilibrium with each
other.

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Temperature scales
• Temperature is commonly measured in terms of three
different scales.
1. Celsius Scale: In the Celsius scale, water freezes at 0
and boils at 100.

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

2. Fahrenheit Scale: In the Fahrenheit scale, water freezes at

32F and boils at 212 °F.

• Absolute Zero: The lowest temperature attainable is referred
to as absolute zero. It is impossible to cool an object to a
temperature lower than absolute zero, which is .
3. Kelvin Scale: In the Kelvin scale, absolute zero is 0 K. In

addition, water freezes at 273.15 K and

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boils at 373.15 K. The degree size is the
same for the Kelvin and Celsius scales. 4
Temperature scales…
Conversion between degrees Celsius and degrees
Fahrenheit

Conversion between degrees Fahrenheit and degrees

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

Celsius

Conversion Between a Celsius Temperature and a Kelvin

Temperature

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Thermal Expansion
• Most substances expand when their temperature
is increased.
• A notable exception is water, which expands as
its temperature is lowered from 4 to 0.
Linear expansion

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• When the rod is heated or cooled, its length changes
in direct proportion to the temperature change and
its initial length:

Or

where is the change in length, is the initial

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length, is the average coefficient of linear
expansion and is the change in temperature. 6
Thermal Expansion…
Area expansion
• Consider a square piece of metal of length on a side and an
initial area .
• Increasing the temperature results in an increased area

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

increased area given by

• For typical changes in temperature and so

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• Note: This result applies to an area of any shape. 7
Thermal Expansion…
Volume expansion
• Consider a cube of length on a side and an initial volume
of .
• Increasing the temperature results in an increased volume

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

given by

• Again, for , we have

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Note: This result applies to an area of any volume. 8
Thermal Expansion…
Volume expansion…
• The change in volume is proportional to the initial
volume and to the change in temperature according to the
relationship

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

where is the average coefficient of volume expansion.

• It follows from and that

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Macroscopic description of an ideal gas
Avogadro’s number
• One mole of a substance contains (Avogadro’s number)
elementary units (usually atoms or molecules), where is
found experimentally to be

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• One molar mass of any substance is the mass of one mole
of the substance.

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Macroscopic description of an ideal gas
Avogadro’s number
• A mole is related to the mass of the individual
molecules of the substance by

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• The number of moles n contained in a sample of
mass , consisting of molecules, is related to the
molar mass of the molecules and to Avogadro’s
number as given by

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Macroscopic description of an ideal gas…
Ideal gas
• An ideal gas is one for which the pressure , volume , and
temperature are related by

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

where is the universal gas constant (), and T is the absolute
temperature of the gas.
• A real gas behaves approximately as an ideal gas if it has a
low density.

• The ideal gas law can also be written as

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where is the Boltzmann constant. 12
Heat and internal energy
• Internal energy is all the energy of a system that is
associated with its microscopic components—atoms and
molecules—when viewed from a reference frame at rest
with respect to the center of mass of the system.

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• Heat is defined as a process of transferring energy across
the boundary of a system because of a temperature
difference between the system and its surroundings. It is
also the amount of energy transferred by this process.
• The SI unit of heat is the joule, J.
• The mechanical equivalent of heat the equivalence
between mechanical energy and internal energy is given
by the equality .

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Specific heat and calorimetry
• The heat capacity of a sample is the heat divided by the
associated temperature change, :

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• The specific heat of a substance is the heat capacity per
unit mass:

• The energy required to change the temperature of a mass

of a substance by an amount is

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where is the specific heat of the substance. 14
Specific heat and calorimetry…
Calorimetry
• Calorimetry is a technique for measuring
specific heat that involves heating a sample to
some known temperature , placing it in a
vessel containing water of known mass and

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

temperature , and measuring the temperature
of the water after equilibrium has been
reached.
• Devices in which this energy transfer occurs
are called calorimeters.

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Specific heat and calorimetry…
Calorimetry…
• If the system of the sample and
the water is isolated, the
principle of conservation of

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

energy requires that the amount
of energy that leaves the
sample (of unknown specific
heat) equal the amount of
energy that enters the water.
• Conservation of energy allows
us to write the mathematical
representation of this energy
statement as

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Specific heat and calorimetry…
Calorimetry…
• Suppose and are, respectively, the mass and the initial
temperature of a sample of some substance whose specific
heat we wish to determine.

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• Likewise, let , , and represent corresponding values for the
water.
• If is the final temperature after the system comes to
equilibrium, we have

• This equation can be solved for the unknown specific

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heat .
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Latent heat
• The energy required to change the phase of a pure
substance is

where is the latent heat of the substance and is the change

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

in mass of the higher-phase material.
• depends on the nature of the phase change and the
substance.
• Higher-phase material means the material existing at the
higher temperature.
• If the entire amount of the lower-phase material undergoes
a phase change, the change in mass of the higher-phase
material is equal to the initial mass of the lower-phase

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material.
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Latent heat…
• Latent heat of fusion is the term used when the phase
change is from solid to liquid.
• Latent heat of vaporization is the term used when the
phase change is from liquid to gas.

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• When energy enters a system, causing melting or
vaporization, the amount of the higher-phase material
increases, so is positive and is positive.
• When energy is extracted from a system, causing freezing
or condensation, the amount of the higher-phase material
decreases, so is negative and is negative.

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 Latent heat…

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

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 Work and Heat in Thermodynamic Processes
• In thermodynamics, the state of a
system is described using state
variables such as pressure, volume,
temperature, and internal energy.
• Consider a gas contained in a cylinder

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

fitted with a movable piston; at
equilibrium, the gas occupies a
volume and exerts a uniform pressure
on the cylinder’s walls and on the
piston.
• If the piston has a cross-sectional area
, the magnitude of the force exerted
by the gas on the piston is .
Work is done on a gas
contained in a cylinder • By Newton’s third law, the magnitude
at a

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of the force exerted by the piston on
pressure as the piston the gas is also .
is 21
pushed downward so
Work and Heat in Thermodynamic Processes…
• Assume that the gas is compressed quasi-statically (i.e.,
slowly enough to allow the system to remain essentially in
internal thermal equilibrium at all times) by pushing the
piston with an external force through a displacement .
• The work done on the gas by the external force is

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• Since is the change in volume of the gas

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Work and Heat in Thermodynamic Processes…
• If the gas is compressed, is negative and the work done on
the gas is positive.
• If the gas expands, is positive and the work done on the
gas is negative.

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• If the volume remains constant, the work done on the gas
is zero.
• The total work done on the gas as its volume changes
from to is given by

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Work and Heat in Thermodynamic Processes…
• If the pressure and volume are
known at each step of the
process, the state of the gas at
each step can be plotted on an
important graphical

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

representation called a PV
diagram.
• The PV diagram help in
visualizing a process through
which a gas is progressing.
• The curve on a PV diagram is
called the path taken between the
A gas is compressed
quasi-statically
initial and final states.

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(slowly) from state
to state . An outside
agent must do positive
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Work and Heat in Thermodynamic Processes…
• For the process of compressing a gas in a cylinder, the
work done depends on the particular path taken between
the initial and final states.

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

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The work done on a gas as it is taken from an initial state to a
final state depends on the path between these states.
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Work and Heat in Thermodynamic Processes…
• The work done on a gas at constant pressure is

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• The work done on a gas at constant volume is zero since .

• The energy transfer into or out of a system by heat also

depends on the process.

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First Law of Thermodynamics

• The first law of thermodynamics is a special case of the

law of conservation of energy that describes processes in
which only the internal energy changes and the only
energy transfers are by heat and work.

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• The first law of thermodynamics states that when a
system undergoes a change from one state to another, the
change in its internal energy is

where is the energy transferred into the system by heat and

is the work done on the system.
• Although and both depend on the path taken from the

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initial state to the final state, the quantity does not depend
on the path. 27
First Law of Thermodynamics…

• In the case of an isolated system, that is, one that does not
interact with its surroundings, no energy transfer by heat
takes place and the work done on the system is zero;
hence, the internal energy remains constant.

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• That is, because , it follows that .
• For the case of a system that can exchange energy with its
surroundings and is taken through a cyclic process, that is,
a process that starts and ends at the same state,

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Some Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics
Idealized thermodynamic processes
1. Adiabatic process
An adiabatic process is one during which no energy enters

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

or leaves the system by heat; that is, and so

2. Isobaric process
A process that occurs at constant pressure is called an
isobaric process.
In this process, the values of and are both usually nonzero

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and
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Some Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics
Idealized thermodynamic processes…
3. Isovolumetric process
A process that takes place at constant volume is called an

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

isovolumetric process.
In an isovolumetric process, and so

• This expression specifies that if energy is added by heat to

a system kept at constant volume, all the transferred energy
remains in the system as an increase in its internal energy.

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Some Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics
Idealized thermodynamic processes…
4. Isothermal process
A process that occurs at constant
temperature is called an isothermal

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

process.
• A plot of versus at constant temperature
for an ideal gas yields a hyperbolic curve
called an isotherm.
• The internal energy of an ideal gas is a
function of temperature only and since
the temperature does not change in an
isothermal process involving an ideal gas
The diagram for an
.
isothermal expansion

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of an ideal gas from • Thus,
an initial state to a
final state. 31
Some Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics
Idealized thermodynamic processes…
Isothermal Expansion of an Ideal
Gas
• The work done on an ideal gas is given by

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• Since is constant in this case, it can be removed from the
integral along with and :

• See Examples 20.5 through 20.7 in Serway, Physics for

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scientists and engineers (9th Edition).
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Energy transfer mechanisms in thermal processes
1. Thermal Conduction
• The process of energy transfer by heat can also be called
conduction or thermal conduction.
• The rate of thermal conduction depends on the properties

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

of the substance being heated.
• Conduction occurs only if there is a difference in
temperature between two parts of the conducting medium.
• Experimentally, it is found that energy transfers in a time
interval from the hotter face to the colder one.

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Energy transfer mechanisms in thermal processes
Thermal Conduction…
• Consider a slab of material of thickness , cross-sectional
area , one at a temperature , and the other face at a
temperature .

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• The rate at which this
energy transfer occurs
is proportional to the
cross-sectional area
and the temperature
difference and
inversely proportional
to the thickness:

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Energy transfer mechanisms in thermal processes
Thermal Conduction…

• The rate of energy transfer by conduction through a slab of

area and thickness is

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

where k is the thermal conductivity of the material from
which the slab is made and is the temperature gradient.

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Energy transfer mechanisms in thermal processes
Thermal Conduction…

• Suppose a long, uniform rod of

lengthis thermally insulated so
that energy cannot escape by

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

heat from its surface except at
the ends.
• When a steady state has been
reached, the temperature at
each point along the rod is
constant in time and if is not a
function of temperature, the
temperature gradient is the
same everywhere along the rod

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and so
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Energy transfer mechanisms in thermal processes
Thermal Conduction…

• For a compound slab containing several materials of

thicknesses , and thermal conductivities , the rate of

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

energy transfer through the slab at steady state is

where and are the temperatures of the outer surfaces

(which are held constant) and the summation is over all
slabs.
• See Example 20.8 in Serway, Physics for scientists and
engineers (9th Edition).

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Energy transfer mechanisms in thermal processes
Thermal Conduction…
Home Insulation
• In engineering practice, the term for a particular substance
is referred to as the R-value of the material and so

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

where .
• See Example 20.9 in Serway, Physics for scientists and
engineers (9th Edition).

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Energy transfer mechanisms in thermal processes
Convection

• In convection, a warm
substance transfers energy from

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

one location to another.

• When resulting from differences

in density, as with air around a
fire, the process is referred to as
natural convection.
Convection currents
are set up in a room
warmed by a

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radiator.
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Energy transfer mechanisms in thermal processes
Thermal radiation

• All objects emit thermal radiation in the form of

electromagnetic waves at the rate

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

where is the power in watts of electromagnetic waves
radiated from the surface of the object,
is a constant, is the surface area of the object in , is the
emissivity, and T is the surface temperature in kelvins.
• The emissivity is equal to the absorptivity, which is the
fraction of the incoming radiation that the surface absorbs.

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Energy transfer mechanisms in thermal processes
Thermal radiation…
• A mirror has very low absorptivity because it reflects
almost all incident light.

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• Therefore, a mirror surface also has a very low emissivity.
• At the other extreme, a black surface has high absorptivity
and high emissivity.
• An ideal absorber is defined as an object that absorbs all
the energy incident on it, and for such an object, .
• An object for which is often referred to as a black body.

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Energy transfer mechanisms in thermal processes
Thermal radiation…
• As an object radiates energy, it also absorbs
electromagnetic radiation from the surroundings, which
consist of other objects that radiate energy.

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• If the latter process did not occur, an object would
eventually radiate all its energy and its temperature would
reach absolute zero.
• If an object is at a temperature and its surroundings are at
an average temperature , the net rate of energy gained or
lost by the object as a result of radiation is

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Energy transfer mechanisms in thermal processes
Thermal radiation…

• When an object is in equilibrium with its surroundings, it

radiates and absorbs energy at the same rate and its

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

temperature remains constant.

• When an object is hotter than its surroundings, it radiates

more energy than it absorbs and its temperature decreases.

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Heat Engines and the Second law of thermodynamics
• A heat engine is a device that takes in energy by heat and,
operating in a cyclic process, expels a fraction of that
energy by means of work.

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• A heat engine carries some working substance through a
cyclic process during which:
1. the working substance absorbs energy by heat from a
high-temperature energy reservoir,
2. work is done by the engine, and
3. energy is expelled by heat to a lower-temperature
reservoir.

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Heat Engines and the Second law of thermodynamics…

• For the mathematical discussion

of heat engines, absolute values
are used to make all energy
transfers by heat positive, and

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

the direction of transfer is
indicated with an explicit
positive or negative sign.
• The engine absorbs a quantity of
energy from the hot reservoir,
does work (so that negative
work is done on the engine) and
then gives up a quantity of
energy to the cold reservoir.
Schematic representation

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of a heat engine.
45
Heat Engines and the Second law of thermodynamics…
• The net work done by a heat engine is equal to the net
energy transferred to it:

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is defined as the
ratio of the net work done by the engine during one cycle
to the energy input at the higher temperature during the
cycle:

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 Heat Engines and the Second law of thermodynamics…
Kelvin–Planck statement of second law of thermodynamics
• The law states the following:
It is impossible to construct a heat
engine that, operating in a cycle,

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

produces no effect other than the
input of energy by heat from a
reservoir and the performance of an
equal amount of work.
• This statement of the second law
means that during the operation of a
heat engine, can never be equal to .
Schematic diagram of a heat
engine that takes in energy

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from a hot reservoir and does
an equivalent amount of
work. It is impossible to
construct such a perfect 47
Heat Pumps and Refrigerators
• Heat pumps and refrigerators
are devices that transfer energy
from the cold reservoir to the
hot reservoir.

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• In a refrigerator or a heat
pump, the engine takes in
energy from a cold reservoir
and expels energy to a hot
reservoir, which can be
accomplished only if work is
Schematic
representati
done on the engine.

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on
of a heat
pump.
48
 Heat Pumps and Refrigerators
Clausius statement of second law of thermodynamics
• The law states the following:
It is impossible to construct a
cyclical machine whose sole effect

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

is to transfer energy continuously
by heat from one object to another
object at a higher temperature
without the input of energy by
work.
• In simpler terms, energy does not
transfer spontaneously by heat from
Schematic diagram a cold object to a hot object.
of an impossible

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heat pump or
refrigerator 49
 Heat Pumps and Refrigerators
• In practice, a heat pump includes a
circulating fluid that passes through
two sets of metal coils that can
exchange energy with the

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

surroundings.
• The fluid is cold and at low pressure
when it is in the coils located in a
cool environment, where it absorbs
energy by heat.
• The resulting warm fluid is then
compressed and enters the other coils
as a hot, high-pressure fluid.
The back of a household

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refrigerator. The air • There it releases its stored energy to
surrounding the coils is
the hot reservoir.
the warm surroundings. 50
Heat Pumps and Refrigerators
• The effectiveness of a heat pump is described in terms of a
number called the coefficient of performance (COP).
• The COP of a heat pump operating in the cooling mode is given
by

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• A good refrigerator should have a high COP, typically 5 or 6.

• The COP of a heat pump operating in the heating mode is given

by

• If the outside temperature is 25°F (24°C) or higher, a typical

value of the COP for a heat pump is about 4.

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Reversible and irreversible processes
• In a reversible process, the system undergoing the process
can be returned to its initial conditions along the same path
on a PV diagram, and every point along this path is an
equilibrium state.

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• A process that does not satisfy these requirements is
irreversible.

• All natural processes are known to be irreversible.

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The Carnot engine
• A Carnot engine is a theoretical engine.

• It is of great importance from both practical and theoretical

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

viewpoints.

• A heat engine operating in an ideal, reversible cycle—

called a Carnot cycle—between two energy reservoirs is
the most efficient engine possible.

• Carnot theorem: No real heat engine operating between

two energy reservoirs can be more efficient than a Carnot

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engine operating between the same two reservoirs.
53
The Carnot engine
• The Carnot cycle consists of two adiabatic processes and two
isothermal processes, all reversible:
1. Process is an isothermal expansion at temperature . The gas is
placed in thermal contact with an energy reservoir at
temperature . During the expansion, the gas absorbs energy from

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

the reservoir through the base of the cylinder and does work in
raising the piston.

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The Carnot engine…
2. In process , the base of the cylinder is replaced by a thermally
nonconducting wall and the gas expands adiabatically; that is, no
energy enters or leaves the system by heat. During the expansion,
the temperature of the gas decreases from to and the gas does
work in raising the piston.

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

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The Carnot engine…
• In process , the gas is placed in thermal contact with an energy
reservoir at temperature Tc and is compressed isothermally at
temperature . During this time, the gas expels energy to the
reservoir and the work done by the piston on the gas is .

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

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The Carnot engine…
• In the final process , the base of the cylinder is replaced by a
nonconducting wall and the gas is compressed adiabatically. The
temperature of the gas increases to , and the work done by the
piston on the gas is .

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

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 The Carnot engine…
• The thermal efficiency an engine is

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• For a Carnot engine,

• Therefore, the thermal efficiency of a Carnot engine is

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 The Carnot engine…
• Theoretically, a Carnot-cycle heat engine run in reverse
constitutes the most effective heat pump possible, and it
determines the maximum COP for a given combination of
hot and cold reservoir temperatures.

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• The Carnot COP for a heat pump in the heating mode is

• The Carnot COP for a heat pump in the cooling mode is

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Molecular model of an ideal gas
• A structural model is a theoretical construct designed to represent
a system that cannot be observed directly because it is too large or
too small.
• The focus is on the structural model called kinetic theory, which
treats an ideal gas as a collection of molecules with the following

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

properties:
1. Physical components: The gas consists of a number of identical molecules within a
cubic container of side length . The number of molecules in the gas is large, and the
average separation between them is large compared with their dimensions. Therefore,
the molecules occupy a negligible volume in the container.

2. Behavior of the components:

a. The molecules obey Newton’s laws of motion, but as a whole their motion is
isotropic: any molecule can move in any direction with any speed.

b. The molecules interact only by short-range forces during elastic collisions. This
assumption is consistent with the ideal gas model, in which the molecules exert no

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long-range forces on one another.

The molecules make elastic collisions with the walls.

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c.
Molecular model of an ideal gas…
• The pressure of molecules of an ideal gas contained in a volume
is

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

• The average translational kinetic energy per
molecule of a gas, , is related to the temperature of
the gas through the expression

where is Boltzmann’s constant.

• Each translational degree of freedom (, , or ) has of
energy associated with it.

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Molecular model of an ideal gas…
• The total translational kinetic energy of molecules of gas is
given

• The root-mean-square (rms) speed of the molecules is

M.H. Banda, Dept. of Physics and Electronics, Mzuzu Universi

given by

where is the molar mass in kilograms per mole.

• See Example 21.1 in Serway, Physics for scientists and

engineers (9th Edition).

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