Chameli Devi Institute of Professional Studies,

Indore

Discrete Structure Unit -2

Madhu Sharma
Asst. Prof.
Department of Computer Science &
Engineering
Unit 2: Madhu Sharma
 Algebraic Structures
 Algebraic systems, Examples and general
properties
 Semi groups
 Monoids
 Groups
 Sub groups
 Ring
 Field

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Algebraic System
 Binary Operation: The binary operator * is said
to be a binary operation (closed operation) on a
non empty set A, if
a * b belongs to A for all (Closure property).
Ex: The set N is closed with respect to addition
and multiplication
but not w.r.t subtraction and division.
 Algebraic System: A set ‘A’ with one or more
binary(closed) operations defined on it is called
an algebraic system.
Ex: (N, + ), (Z, +, – ), (R, +, . , – ) are
algebraic systems.

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Properties
 Commutative: Let * be a binary operation on
a set A.
The operation * is said to be commutative
in A if
a * b= b * a for all a, b in A
 Associativity: Let * be a binary operation on
a set A.
The operation * is said to be associative in
A if
(a * b) * c = a *( b * c) for all a, b, c in A

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Properties
 Identity: For an algebraic system (A, *), an
element ‘e’ in A is said to be an identity element
of A if
a * e = e * a = a for all a  A.
 Note: For an algebraic system (A, *), the identity
element, if exists, is unique.
 Inverse: Let (A, *) be an algebraic system with
identity ‘e’. Let a be an element in A. An
element b is said to be inverse of A if
a*b=b*a=e

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Semi Group
 Semi Group: An algebraic system (A, *) is said
to be a semi group if
1. * is closed operation on A.
2. * is an associative operation, for all a, b, c in A.
 Ex. (N, +) is a semi group.
 Ex. (N, .) is a semi group.
 Ex. (N, – ) is not a semi group.

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Monoid
 Monoid: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be
a monoid if the following conditions are
satisfied.
1. * is a closed operation in A.
2. * is an associative operation in A.
3. There is an identity in A.

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Example
 Show that the set ‘N’ is a monoid with respect to
multiplication.
 Solution: Here, N = {1,2,3,4,……}
1. Closure property : We know that product of two natural
numbers is again a natural number.
i.e., a.b = b.a for all a,b  N
 Multiplication is a closed operation.
2. Associativity : Multiplication of natural numbers is
associative.
i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for all a,b,c  N
3. Identity : We have, 1  N such that
a.1 = 1.a = a for all a  N.
 Identity element exists, and 1 is the identity element.
Hence, N is a monoid with respect to multiplication.
Unit 2: Madhu Sharma
 Subsemigroup & submonoid
 Subsemigroup : Let (S, * ) be a semigroup and
let T be a subset of S. If T is closed under
operation * , then (T, * ) is called a subsemigroup
of (S, * ).
Ex: (N, .) is semigroup and T is set of multiples of
positive integer m then (T,.) is a sub semigroup.

 Submonoid : Let (S, * ) be a monoid with

identity e, and let T be a non- empty subset of S.
If T is closed under the operation * and e  T,
then (T, * ) is called a submonoid of (S, * ).

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Group
 Group: An algebraic system (G, *) is said to be
a group if the following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation.
2) * is an associative operation.
3) There is an identity in G.
4) Every element in G has inverse in G.

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Algebraic System

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Theorem
 In a Group (G, * ) the following properties hold
good
1. Identity element is unique.
2. Inverse of an element is unique.
3. Cancellation laws hold good
a * b = a * c  b = c (left cancellation
law)
a * c = b * c  a = b (Right
cancellation law)
4. (a * b) -1 = b-1 * a-1
 In a group, the identity element is its own
inverse.
Unit 2: Madhu Sharma
 Group
 Order of a group : The number of elements in
a group is called order of the group.

 Finite group: If the order of a group G is finite,

then G is called a finite group.

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Properties of Groups

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Properties of Groups

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Properties of Groups

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma
 Finite and Infinite Group
• A group (G, *) is called a finite group if G is
a finite set.
• A group (G, *) is called a infinite group if G
is an infinite set.
• Example1: The group (I, +) is an infinite
group as the set I of integers is an infinite
set.
• Example2: The group G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7} under multiplication modulo 8 is a finite
group as the set G is a finite set.
Unit 2: Madhu Sharma
 Example
Show that, the set of all integers is a group with
respect to addition.
Solution: Let Z = set of all integers.
Let a, b, c are any three elements of Z.
1. Closure property : We know that, Sum of two
integers is again an integer.
i.e., a + b  Z for all a,b  Z
2. Associativity: We know that addition of integers
is associative.
i.e., (a+b)+c = a+(b+c) for all a,b,c  Z.

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Example
3. . Identity : We have 0  Z and a + 0 = a for
all a  Z .
 Identity element exists, and ‘0’ is the
identity element.
4. Inverse: To each a  Z , we have – a  Z
such that
a+(–a )=0
Each element in Z has an inverse.
5. Commutativity: We know that addition of integers
is commutative.
i.e., a + b = b +a for all a,b  Z.
Hence, ( Z , + ) is an abelian group.
Unit 2: Madhu Sharma
 Exercise
• Prove that the set G={1,2,3,4,5,6} is a finite
abelian group of order 6 with respect to
multiplication modulo 7.

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Exercise
• Show that the three cube roots of unity form a group
with respect to multiplication.
• Solution:We need to prove that cube roots of unity form finite
abelian group under multiplication..
We know that cube roots of unity are (1,w,w2)
Let (G,*) be the set of cube roots of unity that is (1,w,w2)
To show that (G,*) is an abelian group , we first need to prove
that (G,*) is a group.
Composition table

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

• Closure Property: Now, for all group elements a, b belonging to G, ab
also belongs to G.

This satisfies the closure property of groups.

Associative: "∗" is an associative operation.
3. Identity: From operation table, we can see that the identity element,
is "1".
4. Inverse: From operation table we can see that inverse of
Element 1 w w2
Inverse 1 w2 w

So, ({1,w,w2},∗) is a group.

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Order of a Group
• The order of the group G is the number of
elements in the group G. It is denoted by |
G|. A group of order 1 has only the identity
element, i.e., ({e} *).
• A group of order 2 has two elements, i.e.,
one identity element and one some other
element.
• Example1: Let ({e, x}, *) be a group of
order 2. The table of operation is shown in
fig:
Unit 2: Madhu Sharma
 Order of a Group

* e x
e e x
x x e

Order- 3

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Theorem
 In a group (G, *) , Prove that
(a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1 for all a,b G.
Proof : Consider, (a * b) * ( b-1 * a-1)
= (a * ( b * b-1 ) * a-1) (By associative property).
= (a * e * a-1) ( By inverse property)
= ( a * a-1) ( Since, e is identity)
= e ( By inverse property)
Similarly, we can show that
(b-1 * a-1) * (a * b) = e
Hence, (a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1 .

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Homomorphism and Isomorphism
 Homomorphism : Consider the groups ( G, *)
and ( G1, )
A function f : G  G1 is called a
homomorphism if
f ( a * b) = f(a)  f (b)

 Isomorphism : If a homomorphism f : G  G1 is
a bijection then f is called isomorphism between
G and G1 .
Then we write G  G1

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Cosets
• Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G.
Define a left cosets of H with representative
g∈G to be the set
gH ={ gh: h ∈ H}
• Right cosets can be defined similarly by
Hg = {hg: h ∈ H}
• If left and right cosets coincide or if it is clear
from the context to which type of coset that we
are referring, we will use the word coset without
specifying left or right.

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Subgroups
• Let G be a group. A non empty subset H of
G, is called subgroup of G, if H is itself
group with respect to the same operation
defined on G.
• Ex. (I,+) is a subgroup of (Q, +)
• A nonempty subset H of a group G is a
subgroup of G if and only if
i. a,b ∈ H => ab ∈ H
ii. a ∈ H => a-1 ∈ H
Unit 2: Madhu Sharma
Unit 2: Madhu Sharma
 Theorem
• The Intersection of any two subgroups of a
group G is a subgroup of G.
Proof: Suppose H1 and H2 are two subgroups of G.
To prove that H1 H2 is a subgroup of G
It is sufficient to prove that a,b ∈ H 1 H2
=> ab-1 ∈ H1 H2
Let a ∈ H1 H2 and b ∈ H1 H2
 (a ∈ H1 and a ∈ H2) and (b∈H1 and b∈H2 )
 (a ∈ H1 and b ∈ H1) and (a∈H2 and b∈H2 )
 ab-1 ∈ H1 and ab-1 ∈ H2 (H1 and H2 are subgroups)
 ab-1 ∈ H1 H2
 Hence H1 H2 is a subgroup of G.
Unit 2: Madhu Sharma
 Normal Subgroup
• Let G be a group. A subgroup H of G is said to be a
normal subgroup of G if for all h∈ H and x∈ G, x h x-1∈
H
If x H x-1 = {x h x-1| h ∈ H} then H is normal in G if and
only if xH x-1⊆H, ∀ x∈ G

• Statement: If G is an abelian group, then every subgroup

H of G is normal in G.
• Proof: Let any h∈ H, x∈ G, then
x h x-1= x (ah x-1)
x h x-1= (x x-1) h
x h x-1 = e h
x h x-1 = h∈ H
Unit 2: Madhu Sharma
 Ring
• A structure (R, +, ·) is a ring if R is a non-empty set and +
and · are binary operations:
(i) The System (R, +) is an abelian group
(ii) The System (R, .) is an semi group
(iii)Multiplication is distributive with regards to addition

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Ring
1. The System (R, +) is an abelian group, that is, if a,b,c
are any element of the set R then
R11: Closure Law for addition-
a, b∈ R => a+b ∈ R
R12: Associative law for addition: for all a, b, c ∈ R we
have a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
R13: Existence of additive identity: there exists 0 ∈ R
such that for all a ∈ R we have
a+0=0+a=a
R14: Existence of additive inverses: for any a ∈ R there
exists −a ∈ R such that a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0
R15:Commutative law for addition: for all a, b ∈ R we
have a+b=b+a
Unit 2: Madhu Sharma
 Ring
2. R2 : (R2, .) is a semigroup
R21: Closure Law for Multiplication: a, b∈ R => a. b ∈
R
R22 : Associative law for multiplication: for all a, b, c ∈
R we have a . (b . c) = (a . b) . c

3. Distributive Law:
R31: Left distributive Law –
a. (b+c) = a.b + a.c for all a, b, c ∈ R
R32: Right distributive law:
(b+c).a = b.a+ c.a for all a, b, c ∈ R

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Types of Ring
1. Null Ring: The singleton Set (0) with two binary
operations + & . Defined by 0+0= 0 and 0.0 =0 is a ring
called the zero ring or the null ring
2. Ring with unity: 1.a = a.1 =a for all a ∈ R
3. Commutative Ring : a.b = 1 = b.a
4. Ring of Integers: The set I of all integers with two binary
operations addition + and multiplication . of integers is
known as the ring of integers.
5. Boolean Ring: A Ring whose every element is
idempotent
a2 = a

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Properties of Ring
• If the System (R, +, .) be a ring then R
1. a.0 = 0.a = 0
2. a .(-b) =(-a).b = - (a.b)
3. (-a) .(-b) = a.b
4. (b-c).a = b.a – c.a
5. a.(b-c) = a.b – a.c

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Field
• A structure (F, +, ·) is a ring if R is a non-empty set and +
and · are binary operations:
(i) The System (F, +) is an abelian group
(ii) The System (F, .) is an abelian group
(iii)Multiplication is distributive with regards to addition

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Field
1. The System (F, +) is an abelian group, that is, if a,b,c are
any element of the set R then
F11: Closure Law for addition-
a, b∈ R => a+b ∈ F
F12: Associative law for addition: for all a, b, c ∈ F we
have a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
F13: Existence of additive identity: there exists 0 ∈ F
such that for all a ∈ R we have
a+0=0+a=a
F14: Existence of additive inverses: for any a ∈ F there
exists −a ∈ R such that a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0
F15:Commutative law for addition: for all a, b ∈ F we
have a+b=b+a
Unit 2: Madhu Sharma
 Field
2. (F2, .) is a abelian group
F21: Closure Law for Multiplication: a, b∈ F=> a. b ∈ F

F22 : Associative law for multiplication: for all a, b, c ∈ F

we have a . (b . c) = (a . b) . c
F13: Existence of identity: there exists 1 ∈ F such that for
all a ∈ R we have
a.1 = 1.a = a
F14: Existence of additive inverses: for any a ∈ F there
exists −a ∈ R such that a. (a-1)= (a-1).a= 1
F15:Commutative law for addition: for all a, b ∈ F we
have a .b = b.a

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Field
3. Distributive Law:
F31: Left distributive Law –
a. (b+c) = a.b + a.c for all a, b, c ∈ F
F32: Right distributive law:
(b+c).a = b.a+ c.a for all a, b, c ∈ F

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Numericals
• Prove that the Set F= {0,1,2-----6} under addition
and multiplication modulo 7 is a field.

• Prove that the set R={0,1,2,3,4} is a commutative

ring with unity with respect to composition + 5 and
*5.

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma

 Integral Domain
• An algebraic Structure (R,+,.) is called a integral
domain, if it satisfied the following postulates:
• R1: (R,+) is an abelian group.
• R2: (R,.) is an semi group.
• R3: (R,.) is commutative: ab=ba
• R4: (R,.) has unity element: 1 ∈ R such that
a.1=1.a=a
• R5: R is without zero divisior ab=0 => a=0 or b=0
• R6: Distributive laws:
a. (b+c) = a.b + a.c for all a, b, c ∈ R
(b+c).a = b.a+ Unit
c.a2: Madhu
for all a, b, c ∈ R
Sharma
 Integral Domain
• In other words a ring (R,+,.) is called a integral
domain, if
(i) R is commutative
(ii) R is with unit element.
(iii) R is without zero divisior.

Unit 2: Madhu Sharma