Digital logic

dESIGN

Lecture-1 UNIT-Ii

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
 Definition of Boolean algebra
In mathematics and mathematical logic,
Boolean algebra is the branch of algebra in
which the values of the variables are the truth
values true and false, usually denoted 1 and 0
respectively.

• Boolean algebra is an algebraic structure

defined by a set of elements, together with two
binary operators + and . , provided that the
following postulates are satisfied.
 Postulate : Closure Property
• Closure(a):
when two binary elements are operated
by operator + the result is a unique
binary element OR operator
(plus/Addition)
• Closure(b):
When two binary elements are operated by
operator .(dot),the result is a unique binary
element AND operator(dot/multiplication)
 Postulate: Identity or Idempotency
Property
• There exists unique elements 1(one) and
0(zero) such that:
(a) x + x = x
x+0=x
(b) x . x= x
x . 1= x
• Where 0 is the identity element for the OR
operator and 1 is the identity element for the
AND operator
 Postulate : Complementation Property

•For every x in β there exists a unique

element x’ such that:
x + x’ = 1 x . x’ = 0
Properties of 0 and 1 Element
 Binary Operators

x y x.y x y x+y x x’

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
 Duality Property
• If a Boolean expression is true, the dual of
expression also true.
• To find the dual, follow the following steps:
(1) Change + operator to . operator
(2) Change . operator to + operator.
(3) Change 0 to 1 and 1 to 0 .
• Example: Dual of relation X + X’ = 1 is X . X’ =0.
• Duality is a very important property of boolean
algebra.
Basic Boolean Theorems
 Theorem1 : Idempotency
(a) A+A=A (b) A . A = A
Proof: Proof:
A + A = (A + A) . 1 A.A=A.A+0
= (A + A). (A + A’) = A . A + A .A’
= A A + A A’ + A A + A = A ( A + A’)
A’ =A.1
= A A+ A A’ =A
=A+0
=A
 Perfect Induction Method
• (a) A+1 =1 (b) A . 0 = 0
Proof:
A + 1 = 1 . (A + 1) Proof:
= (A + A’) (A + 1) 0.0=0
= A.A + A.1 + A’
.A + A’.1 => A
= A +A+ 0 + A’ .0=0
= A + A’
=1 1.0=0

A . 0 = 0 by the
 Theorem 2: Involution
• A’’ = A
• Proof:
0’’ = 0
=> A’’ = A
1’’ = 1
 Theorem 3 : Absorbtion
• (a) A + AB = A (b) A (A+B) = A
Proof: Proof:
A + AB = A . 1 + AB A (A + B) = A . A + AB
= A(1+B) = A + AB
=A.1 =A
=A
 Examples of Absorption theorem
• (a) A + A’ B = A + B (b) A . (A’ + B) = AB
Proof:
Proof: A . ( A’ + B) = (A + AB) . (A’ + B)
A + A’ B = A + AB + A’B = A A’ + AB + A’AB+ ABB
= AB + ABB
= A + B .( A + A’)
= AB + AB
= A + B .1 = AB
= A+ B
 Theorem4: DeMorgan’s Theorems
• DeMorgan suggested two theorems that
form an important part of boolean algebra.
(1) = +
(2)The complement of a product is equal to the
sum of the complements
Truth Table:
(2)
=
• The complement of a sum is equal to
the product of the complements
Truth Table:
Theorem5 : Consensus Theorem
• The expression of the form AB + A’C+ BC in which
the term BC is redundant and can be eliminated to
form the equivalent expression as AB + A’C
• The theorem used for this simplification is known as
consensus theorem and it is stated as
AB + A’C + BC = AB + A’C
Proof:
AB + A’C + BC = AB + A’C + (A + A’) BC
= AB + A’C + ABC + A’BC
= AB + ABC + A’C + A’BC
= AB(1+C) + A’C(1+B)
= AB + A’C
 Binary Operators

x y x.y x y x+y x x’

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
 x.(y+z) = (x.y)+(x.z)
x y z y+z x.(y+z) x.y x.z (x.y)+x.z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 Switching Functions
• Switching functions are also called as Boolean Functions

• Boolean expressions are constructed by connecting Boolean

constants and variables with Boolean operators.

• Boolean expressions are also known as Boolean formulae.

• Boolean expressions are used to describe Boolean functions

.
• Example: The Boolean expression (A + B’) C is used to
describe the function f , then the Boolean function written as
f(A, B, C) = (A + B’) C (or)
f = (A + B’) C
•In the following Boolean function, the variables
appeared either in a complemented or in an
uncomplemented form
•Occurrence of variable either in a complemented
or in an uncomplemented form is called a Literal.
•A product term is defined as either a literal or
product of literals.
• The above Boolean function consists of
seven literals, they appear in sum terms.
• A sum term is defined as either literal or
sum of literals.
Simplification of Switching Functions using
Theorems
Simplification of Switching Functions using
Theorems
• Example 1: Simplify the expression
Z = A B + A B’ . (A’C’)’.
Solution: Apply the Demorgan’s theorem and multiply out
all terms.
Z = A B + A B’ . (A’C’)’
= A B + A B’ . (A’’ + C’’).
= A B + A B’ .(A + C)
= A B + A B’ A + A B’ C
= A B + A B’ + A B’ C
= A B + A B’ ( 1 + C)
= A B + A B’
= A ( B + B’)
= A
Simplify the following :
 Standard Forms
• Boolean function can be expressed in the
standard form.
• In the standard form, the terms that form the
function may contain one, two, or any number
of literals.
• The literals and terms are arranged in one of
the two standard forms:
(1) Sum Of Products form (SOP)
(2) Product Of Sums form (POS)
 Sum Of Products (SOP)
• The sum and product are derived from
the symbolic representations of the OR
and AND functions by + and . boolean
operators
• Product term is group of literals that are
ANDed together.
example: A.B.C , X.Y
• Sum term is group of literals that are
Ored together.
example: A + B + C, X +
Y
• Sum Of Products (SOP): It is a boolean expression
containing AND terms, called product terms.
Sum(OR) of these product terms having one or more
literals called SOP form
Example: Sum
f(A,B,C) = A B + A B’ C’

Product terms
• Each of these sum of products expression consist of
two or more product terms (AND) that are ORed
together
• Each product term consists of one or more literals,
appear in either complemented or uncomplemented
form
• The sum of products form is also known as
disjunctive normal form
 Product Of Sums (POS)
• A product of sums is group of sum terms ANDed
together.
Example: Product
f(A,B,C) = (A + B) . (B’ + C)
Sum terms
• Product of sums expression consist of two or more
sum terms (OR) that are ANDed together.
• Each sum term consists of one or more literals,
appear in either complemented or an
uncomplemented form.
• The product of sums form is also known as
conjunctive normal form
 Canonical Forms
• The canonical forms are the special
cases of Sum Of Product (SOP) and
Product Of Sum (POS) forms
• These are also known as standard
Sum Of Product(SOP) and standard
Product Of Sum (POS) forms
 Standard SOP Form
• In the SOP form all the individual terms do not involve all
literals.
• Example: AB + ABC’
• If each term in SOP form contains all the literals, then the
SOP form is known as Standard or canonical SOP form.
• Each individual term in standard SOP form is called
minterm. So it also called as minterm canonical form.
• Example: f(A,B,C) = A B’C + A B C + A’ B C’
Each product term consists of all literals in either
complemnted or uncomplemented form
 Standard POS form
• If each term in POS form contains all the
literals, then the POS form is known as
standard or canonical POS form.
• Each individual term in the standard POS form
is called maxterm. So it is also known as
maxterm canonical form
Example: f(A,B,C) = (A + B+ C) . (A + B’
+ C)
Each sum term consists of all literals in
either complemnted or un complemnted form
Converting expressions in to standard
SOP or POS form
• Steps to convert SOP to Standard
SOP form:
– Step1: Find the missing literal in each product
term.
– Step2: AND each product term having missing
literal with term formed by ORing the literal
and its complement.
– Step3: Expand the terms by applying
distributive law and reorder the literals in the
product terms.
– Step4: Reduce the expression by omitting
repeated product terms, if any. Because A + A =
A.
 Example
• Convert the given expression in to standard
SOP form
f(A,B,C) = AC + AB + BC
• Solution:
Step1: Find the missing literal in each
product term.
f(A,B,C) = AC + AB + BC
Literal B is missing
Literal A is missing
Literal C is missing
• Step2: AND product term with (missing literal + its
complement).
Original product terms
f(A,B,C) = AC . (B+B’) + AB . (C+C’) + BC .
(A+A’)
Missing Literals and their
complements
• Step3: Expand the terms and reorder literals
Expand: f(A,B,C) = ACB +ACB’ + ABC + ABC’ +
BCA + BCA’
Reorder: f(A,B,C) = ABC + AB’C + ABC + ABC’ +
ABC + A’BC
• Step4:Omit repeated product terms
f(A,B,C) = ABC + AB’C + ABC +
ABC’ +ABC + A’BC

f(A,B,C) = ABC + A B’C + ABC’

+A’BC
----Standard SOP
form (Canonical form)
• Steps to convert POS to standard
POS form
– Step1: Find the missing literal in each sum term, if
any.
– Step2: OR each sum term having missing literal
with term formed by ANDing the literal and its
complement.
– Step3: Expand the terms by applying distributive
law and reorder the literals in the sum terms.
– Step4: Reduce the expression by omitting repeated
sum terms if any . Because A . A = A.
 EXAMPLE
• Convert the given POS expression in to
standard POS Form
f(A,B,C) = A . (A+B+C)
• Solution:
Step1: Find the missing literal in each
sum term
f(A,B,C) = A . (A+B+C)
Literals B and C are missing
• Step2: OR sum term with ( missing literal . Its
complement)
f(A,B,C) = ( A + B.B’ + C.C’) ( A + B + C)
Missing literals and their
complemnts
• Step3: Expand the terms and reorder literals.
since A + BC = (A + B) (A + C)
f(A,B,C) = (A + B.B’+ C) (A + B.B’ + C’)
(A + B + C)

= (A + B + C) ( A + B’ + C) (A + B + C’) (A + B’ + C’)
( A+ B+ C)
• Step4: Omit repeated sum terms

f(A,B,C) = (A + B + C) (A + B’ + C) (A + B + C’) (A
+ B’ + C’) (A + B + C)

f(A,B,C) = (A + B + C) (A + B’ + C) (A + B + C’) (A
+ B’ + C’)
----Standard POS
form (Canonical form)
 M-Notations : Minterms and Maxterms
• Minterm is a product term having all the variables of
the function either in its normal or complimented
form
• Each individual term in standard SOP form is called
Minterm
• Maxterm is a sum term having all the variables of
the function either in its normal or complimented
form
• Each individual term in standard POS form is called
Maxterm
• For an n-variable logical function there are 2 n
minterms and an equal number of maxterms.
 Minterms and Maxterms for Three Variables
•Each minterm is represented by m i .
•Each maxterm is represented by Mi .
• Where i is the decimal number equilent of the
binary number
 Examples
• Minterms:
f( A,B,C) = A’ B’ C’ + A’ B’C + A’ B C +
A B C’
= m0 + m 1 + m3 + m6 =
• Maxterms:
f( A,B,C) = (A + B + C’) (A + B’ + C’) (A’ + B’ + C)
= M1 . M3 . M6 = Л M (1, 3 ,6)
Where Л denotes product of sums and

Indicates sum of products

 • Example2: Simplify the following three variable expression
using Boolean algebra, Y =

•Step 1: From the minterms we can write expression in

SOP form
Y = A’ B’ C + A’ B C +A B’ C + A B C
• Step 2: Search for common terms for factorization
Y = A’ B’ C + A’ B C + A B’ C + A B C
= A’ C ( B + B’) + A C ( B’ + B)
= A’ C + A C
= C ( A’ + A)
=C
• Example3: Simplify the following three variable expression using
Boolean algebra Y = Л M (3,5,7)
Solution: Y=

From the minterms write expression in SOP form

Y = A’ B’ C’ + A’ B’ C + A’ B C’ + A B’ C’ + A B C’
= A’ B’ C’ + A B’ C’ + A’ B C’ + A B C’ + A’ B’ C
= B’ C’ (A’ + A) + BC’ ( A’ + A) + A’ B’ C
= B’ C’ + B C’ + A’ B’ C
= C’ ( B’ + B) + A’ B’ C
= C’ + A’ B’ C from A + A’ B = A + B

= C’ + A’ B’
 K-map
• K-map contains boxes called cells.
• Each of the cell represents one of the 2n
possible products that can be formed
from n variables.
• Product terms are assigned to the cells of a
k- map by labeling each row and each column
of the map with a variable, with its
complement or with a combination of
variables and complements.
 Representation of Truth Table on
K- Map
• The terms which are having output 1
corresponding cell marked with 1s, other cells
marked with 0s.
Standard SOP Representation on k-map
• A boolean expression with product terms can be plotted on
the k-map by placing a 1 in each cell corresponding to a term
in the SOP expression.
• Ex: Y=ABC’+ABC+A’B’C
• 110 111 001
• 6 7 1
Standard POS Representation on K-map
• A boolean expression with sum terms can be
plotted on the k-map by placing a 0 in each
cell corresponding to a term in the POS
expression.
• Ex: Y=(A+B’+C)(A+B’+C’)(A’+B’+C)(A+B+C’)
Obtain minimal expression using K-map
• Grouping Two Adjacent Ones(Pair)

D
 F(X,Y) = XY + X’Y

X Y F=XY + X’Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
 Y 0 1
X
X’Y’ X’Y
0 (m0) (m1)

XY’ XY
1 (m2) (m3)

Two variable k-map

 Y 0 1
X
0 1
Y
1 1

F=Y
 Y = AB’C+A’B’C+A’BC+AB’C’+A’B’C’
Y = ∑ m ( 5, 1, 3, 4, 0 ) A’ B
A BC 00 01 11 C 10 ’
1 1
1
0
0 1 3 2
1 1
1 5 7 6
4

F = A’C + B’
From red group we get product term—A’C

From yellow group we get product term—AB

Summing these product terms we get- Final

expression (A’C+AB)
• Grouping Four Adjacent ones(Quad):
• Grouping Eight Adjacent ones(Octet):
 Y = ∑ ( 0, 1,2, 3, 4, 5,7,6,14)
A
CD 01 11 10 ’
AB 00
1 1 1 1
00 0 1 3 2

01 1
4
1
5
1
7
1
6
BCD’
11 12 13 15
1
14

10 8 9 11 10

Y= A’+BCD’
Prime implicants,non prime implicants
and essensial prime implicants
C
AB 0 1 A’C
00 1 ’
A’
01 B
1 1
BC
11 1
10
Prime implicants : A’C’ , A’B , BC
Non prime implicants :
A’B’C’, A’BC’, A’BC, ABC
Essential prime implicants :
A prime implicant that includes a
minterm not covered by any other
prime implicant.
A’C’ , BC
Non essential prime implicant : A’B
Reduce the given function to minimum
number of literals
Y(A,B,C,D) = ∑m (0,2,3,8,10,11,12,14)
 CD
AB 00 01 11 10
00 10 1
1 3
1 2 B’D
’
01 4 5 7 6
AD
11 1 12 13 15
1 14 ’
10 1 1 1
8 9 11 10

B’
Y= B’D’+AD’+B’C
C
Reduce the expression
Y= ∑m ( 1,5,6,7,11,12,13,15)
 CD
AB 00 01 11 10 A’C’
00 1 1 D
0 3 2

01 1 1 1 A’B
4 5 7 6
C
11 1 12 1 13
1 15 14

10 1 ACD
8 9 11 10

ABC
’
Y = A’C’D+A’BC+ACD+ABC’
Minimise the following function in SOP minimal form using K-Maps:
F(A, B, C, D) = m(1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 15) + d(0, 3, 5, 12)

Explanation:
The SOP K-map for the given expression is:

Therefore,
f = AC'D' + A'D + A'C + AB
• Example 2: Minimize the given Boolean
Expression by using the four-variable K-Map.
F (A, B, C, D) = Σ m (1, 5, 6, 12, 13, 14) + d (2,
4).
• Using K-Map Method obtain the minimal POS
expression for the following andrealize the
minimal expression in NOR logic.
• F = π m(0, 1, 4, 5, 9, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 25, 27,
28, 29, 31)·d(20, 21, 22, 30)
5 Variable K-Map
How many k-maps are needed?
 Simplify the Boolean function
F(A,B,C,D,E) =
∑m(0,5,6,8,9,10,11,16,20,24,25,26,27,29,31)
 C’D’ A’B’CD AB’D’
DE
E’ E’ E’
00 01 1 1 10 DE
ABC
00 ABC 00 01 1 1 10
1
00 1
01 1 1
01 1
11
11 1 1
10 1 1 1 1 10 1 1 1 1

A=0 A=1
BC
’ ABE
A’B’CD’
E
F= BC’+ABE+C’D’E’+AB’D’E’+A’B’CDE’+A’B’CD’E
 Simplify the Boolean function
F(V,W,X,Y,Z) =
∑m(1,2,6,7,9,13,14,15,17,22,23,25,29,30,31)
 X’Y’ V’W’Y
Z Z’
yz
yz
wx 0 0 01 1 1 10
wx 00 01 1 1 10
00 1 1
00 1
01 1 1
01 1 1
11 1 1
1 11 1 1 1
10 1 10 1

v= 0 v=1
WXZ XY

F=XY+WXZ+X’Y’Z+V’W’YZ’
 Limitations of k-map
• The map method of simplification is
convenient as long as the number of
variables does not exceed five or six.
• In case of complex problem with 7,8 or
10 variables it is almost impossible task
to simplify expression by the map
method.
• K-map simplification is a manual
technique and simplification process is
heavily depends on human abilities.
 Prime Implicants

• Any boolean function or expression can be

expressed in sum of products form.
• All groups of adjacent minterms formed in a
K-map are called prime implicants.
• A groups of adjacent minterms in K-map is
called an essential prime implicant if this
group has a minterm that is not covered by
any other groups or prime implicants.
 Tabular Method of Minimization

Quine-McCluskey and Prime Implicant chart Methods

• The tabular method which is also known as the
Quine-McCluskey method is particularly useful
when minimising functions having a large number
of variables, e.g. The six-variable functions.
Computer programs have been developed
employing this algorithm.
• The method reduces a function in standard sum of
products form to a set of prime implicants from
which as many variables are eliminated as
possible.
• These prime implicants are then examined to see if
some are redundant.
, A’BC
Algorithm for Quine-McCluskey Method
Step-1:
• Arrange all minterms in groups, such that all terms in the
same group have the same number of 1’s in their binary
representation.
• The number of 1’s in a term is called the index of that term.
• EX: F(W,X,Y,Z) =
Step 2:
• Compare every term of the lowest index group with each
term in the sucessive group.
• Combine two terms being compared by the means of
combining theorem AB+AB’=A.
• Repeat this by comparing each term in a group of index i
with every term in the group of i+1.
Step-3:
• Now compare the terms generated in step2.
• A new term generated by combining two terms that differ
by only a single 1 and whose dashes are in same position.
• The process continues until no further combinations are
possible.

Prime implicants are

F=A+B+C+D
 Prime Implicant Chart
• The prime implicant chart displays pictorially the
covering relationships between the prime implicants
and minterms of a function.
• It consists of an array of u columns and v rows, where
u and v designate the number of minterms in the
function and number of prime implicants respectively.
• The entries of ith row in the chart consist of X’s
placed at its intersections with the coloumns
corresponding to minterms covered by the ith prime
implicant.
Essential Rows:
• If any column contains just a single X then the
prime implicant corresponding to the row in
which this X appears is essential and
consequently must be included.

Don’t-care Combinations:
• Don’t-care minterms need not be listed as
column headings in the prime implicant chart,
since they do not have to be covered by the
minimal expression.
 Example

F = vz+wxz+vw’xy’+vw’x’y
EX 1: Reduce the given function using Tabular method
F(W,X,Y,Z)= ∑ (0,5,7,8,9,10,11,14,15)

A,B,C,D,E are prime implicants.

F(W,X,Y,Z)=A+B+D+E=WY+WX’+W’XZ+X’Y’Z’
EX 1: Reduce the function using Tabular method
F(V,W,X,Y,Z)= ∑(0,1,2,8,9,15,17,21,24,25,27,31)

A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K are prime implicants

F(V,W,X,Y,Z)=A+E+F+H+J=WX’Y’+WXYZ+VWZ’Z+VW’Y’Z+V’W’X’Z’
F(V,W,X,Y,Z)= ∑(0,2,4,5,6,7,8,10,14,17,18,21,29,31) ∑d(11,20,22)
F(V,W,X,Y,Z)=VW’Y’Z+VWXZ+V’X’Z’+V’YZ+W’YZ’+V’W’X
 conclusion
• Quine-McCluskey Tabular Method.
• Prime Implicant chart.
• simplification rules.
Topics going to be coverd in the next class

Single output and multiple output

combinational logic circuit design.
 AND-OR, OR-AND and
NAND/NOR realizations.
 Exclusive-OR and Equivalence
functions