NETWORKING

CONCEPTS FOR
IPMPLS
(DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING –
TA2)
By
Samatha, INW3
OBJECTIVE:
By the end of the session you will be able to identify
 1. Basics of Data Communications
 2. OSI Layers
 3. IP Address
 4. Data Transmission on LAN
 5. Data Transmission on WAN
DAY - 1

 1. Basics of Data Communications

 2. OSI Layers
 Introduction
 Communication is sharing of information

 Data refers to facts, Concepts & instructions

 In the context of computer information systems, data is

presented by binary information units (or) bits.

 Data communication is the exchange of data (bits)

between two devices via some form of transmission
medium
Data communication Components
 Message

 Transmitter

 Receiver

 Medium

 Protocol
 Network
A network is a set of devices (or) nodes connected by
media links. A node can be a Computer, Printer (or)
any other device capable of sending / receiving the
data generated by other nodes on the network.

Network Criteria:
For effective and efficient network it should meet the
following.
Performance
Reliability
Security
 Network Classification

Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of

characteristics

Based on Connection method

• Wired Networks
• Wireless Networks
Based on functional relationship(network architecture)
• Client Server Networks
• Peer to Peer Networks
 Network Classification

Based on physical scope

• Local Area Network(LAN)
• Metropolitan Area Networks(MAN)
• Wide Area Networks(WAN)
• Personal Area Network (PAN)

Based on topology
• Bus
• Ring
• Star
• Mesh
 OSI Layers
(Open System Interconnection)
 OSI Model – History, Origin, Purpose
 Introduced in 1974 by ISO, that covers all aspects of network
Communications is the open systems Interconnections model .

 An Open system allows any two different systems to communicate

regardless of their underlying architecture.

 The OSI model is not a protocol ; it is a model for understanding

and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust and
interoperable.

 The OSI model is a seven-layer framework that allows

communication between all types of computer systems
What is OSI Model?
 The OSI Model is a way of thinking about how networks 'work'.
 The OSI Model is a theoretical model--it is not a technology, it is
not a protocol, it is not a program or software.
 The OSI Model sorts out network communication functions into
layers
 The OSI Model does not specify how a layer will work internally--
that is a matter left to the programmers.
 The OSI Model specifies how layers should talk to each other.
 The OSI Model specifies that any layer's processes should be
invisible to the layer above it, and below it.
 The OSI Model defines how information should be handled when
being transported over a network.
 The OSI Model defines how software should interact with the
network.
Why should we learn about OSI layers
 Learning the OSI Model helps us to understand what functions
occur where and when
 The OSI Model helps us to understand how a Web browser works
 The OSI Model helps us to understand what Internet Protocol does
and how it works
 The OSI Model helps us to understand why we need ARP
 The OSI Model helps us to understand what is MAC address
 Learning the OSI Model makes it easier to learn.
 Learning the OSI Model makes it easier to perform
troubleshooting.
 Learning the OSI Model makes it easier to troubleshoot any
problem, including computer problems.
 Learning the OSI Model makes it easier to communicate with other
technical people and discuss technical issues.
 COMPANY A COMPANY B
(HITECH CITY)

A
Amit
P
Prasad
Sharat S

Tiwari T

Nandu N
Dheeraj D
Pradeep P
 OSI Layers
OSI Model Layers
OSI Layers

Layer - 7 Application
Application
Upper Layer
Layer - 6 Presentation
Presentation or
Software Layer
Layer - 5 Session
Session

Layer - 4 Transport Heart of OSI

Transport

Layer - 3 Network
Network
Lower Layer
Layer - 2 Data
DataLink
Link or
Hardware Layer
Layer - 1 Physical
Physical

14
 Application Layers
Application Layer is responsible for
Application
Application
Application
Application providing Networking Services to user.
It also known as Desktop Layer.
Presentation Identification of Services is done using
Presentation
Port Numbers.
Session
Session
Ports are nothing but Socket i.e. Entry
and Exit Point to the Layer
Transport
Transport
Total No. Ports 0 – 65535
Network
Network Reserved Ports(TCP/IP)
Well known ports 0 –
Data
DataLink
Link 1023
Registered Ports 1024 – 49151
Physical
Physical Open Ports 49152 -
65535

15
How data flows through Application Layer
from Application Layer

Application
Application Data

80 21 25 53 67 69

Presentation
Presentation

Session
Session

Transport
Transport

Network
Network

Data
DataLink
Link

Physical
Physical

16
 Port numbers & Services

Service Port No.

HTTP 80

FTP 21

SMTP 25

TELNET 23

TFTP 69

HTTPS 443
17
 Presentation Layer

Application Presentation Layer is responsible

Application
for converting data into standard
Presentation
Presentation
Presentation
Presentation format.
Session
Examples : ASCII, EBCDIC, JPEG,
Session
MPEG, BMP, MIDI, WAV, MP3
Transport
Transport Following tasks are perform at
Presentation layer :
Network
Network
Formatting :
Data
DataLink
Link Translation..
Physical Encoding – Decoding
Physical
Encryption – Decryption
Compression – Decompression
18
How data flows through Presentation Layer

Application
Application Data

Presentation
Presentation Data

Session
Session

Transport
Transport

Network
Network

Data
DataLink
Link

Physical
Physical

19
 Session Layer

Application Session Layer is responsible

Application
establishing, maintaining and
Presentation
Presentation terminating session.
Session
Session
Session ID also works at Session
Session
Session
Layer.
Transport
Transport

Network
- Authentication
Network
- Authorisation
Data
DataLink
Link

Physical
Physical

20
How data flows through Session Layer

Application
Application Data

Presentation
Presentation Data

Session
Session Data

Transport
Transport

Network
Network

Data
DataLink
Link

Physical
Physical

21
 Transport Layer

Application Transport Layer is responsible for

Application
end-to-end connectivity. It is also
Presentation
Presentation known as heart of OSI Layers.
Following task are performed at
Session
Session Transport Layer : -
Transport
Transport
Transport
Transport  Identifying Service
Network
Network  Multiplexing & De-multiplexing
Data
DataLink
Link  Segmentation

Physical
Physical
 Sequencing & Reassembling
 Flow Control
 Error Correction 22
 Transport Layer

 Service point addressing.

 Segmentation and reassembly.

 Connection control i.e. end to end connection

 Flow control & Error control.

 The Transport layer is responsible for the

delivery of a message from one process to
another with reliability.
How data flows from Transport Layer
How data flows through Transport Layer

Application
Application Data

Presentation
Presentation Data

Session
Session Data

Transport TH Data
Segment
Transport

Network
Network

Data
DataLink
Link

Physical
Physical

24
 OSI Layers
Multiplexing & De-multiplexing
Transport Layer Protocols with port numbers

Application
Application

Presentation
Presentation

Session
Session

80 21 25 53 67 69

Transport
Transport
TCP - 6 UDP - 17

Network
Network

Data
DataLink
Link

Physical
Physical
25
 OSI Layers
Identifying Service
Transport Layer Protocols

TCP UDP
 Transmission Control Protocol
 User Datagram Protocol
 Connection Oriented
 Connection less
 Acknowledgement
 No Acknowledgement
 Reliable
 Unreliable
 Slower
 Faster
 Port No. 6
 Port No. 17
e.g. HTTP, FTP, SMTP
e.g. DNS, DHCP, TFTP
26
Network Layer
Network Layer
Network Layer is responsible for
Application
Application
providing best path to data to reach
Presentation
Presentation destination. Logical Addressing sits
on this layer. Device working on
Session
Session Network Layer is Router.
Transport
Transport
Functions:
Logical addressing
Network
Network
Network
Network
Routing
Data
DataLink
Link Path determination
Physical
Physical
Routing Protocols
e.g. RIP, IGRP, OSPF, EIGRP
27
 Network Layer

 Logical addressing.

 Routing and best path selection.

 Routes packets according to unique network device

addresses.

 Provides flow & congestion control.

 Network layer is responsible for the delivery of

individual packets from source (Server) to
destination (Host).
 OSI Layers
How data flows from Network Layer
How data flows through Network Layer

Application
Application Data

Presentation
Presentation Data

Session
Session Data

e.g. Router Transport

Transport Segment

Network
Network NH Segment
Packet

Data
DataLink
Link

Physical
Physical

29
Datalink Layer
Datalink Layer

Application Datalink Layer is divided into two Sub

Application
Layers :
Presentation
Presentation LLC – Logical Link Control
Session
 It talks about Wan protocols
Session

Transport
Transport
MAC – Media Access Control
Network
Network
 It talks about Physical Address.
 It is 48 bit Addressing
Data
DataLink
Data
Data Link
Link
Link
i.e. 12 digit Hexadecimal Number.
Physical
Physical  Device working on Data Link Layer is
Switch, Bridge, NIC.
30
 Datalink Layer

 Access to Media

 Physical addressing and network topology.

 Flow control, Error control & Access control.

 Data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from hop to hop or node to node & its
delivery. It defines procedure for operating
the communication links.
 OSI Layers
How data flows from Data Link Layer
How data flows through Datalink Layer

Application
Application Data

Presentation
Presentation Data

Session
Session Data

Transport
Transport Segment

e.g. Switch Network

Network Packet

Data
DataLink
Link DH Packet DT
Frame

Physical
Physical

32
Physical Layer
Physical Layer

 Physical Layer is responsible for electrical,

Application
Application
mechanical or procedural checks.
Presentation
Presentation  Data will be converted in Binary that is 0’s
& 1’s.
Session
Session
 Data will be in the form of electrical pulses
Transport
Transport if it is Coaxial or Twisted Pair cable and in
the form of Light if it is Fiber Optic Cable.
Network
Network
 Devices working at Physical Layer are Hubs,
Data
DataLink
Link Repeaters, Cables, Modems etc.
Physical
Physical
Physical
Physical

33
 Physical Layer

 Physical characteristics of interfaces &

medium.
 Representation of bits.
 Data rate or transmission rate.
 Synchronization of bits.
 Line configurations.
 Physical topology
 Transmission modes
 Physical layer is responsible for bit to bit binary
transmission.
 OSI Layers
How data flows from Physical Layer
How data flows through Physical Layer

Application
Application Data

Presentation
Presentation Data

Session
Session Data

Transport
Transport Segment

Network
Network Packet

e.g. Hub Data

DataLink
Link Frame

Physical
Physical Bits

35
 OSI Layers
How data& transmits
Data Encapsulation from
De-capsulation source to
destination using OSI layer
A B

Application Data Data Application

Application Application

Presentation
Presentation Data Data Presentation
Presentation

Session
Session Data Data Session
Session

Transport
Transport
TH Data
Segment Segment
TH Data Transport TH
Transport

Network
Network NH Segment
Packet NH
PacketSegment Network
Network NH

Data DH Packet
Frame DT DT Packet
Frame DH
Packet Link DH
DT
DataLink
Link DataLink
Data

Physical
Physical Bits Bits Physical
Physical
36
OBJECTIVES OF LAYERS
 Summary of OSI layers

Application
Application Virtual terminal SW for user appl. and services

Presentation
Presentation Syntax and Semantics

Session
Session Manages timings and dialogs (Synchronization)

Transport
Transport Splits data and passes to NW layer

Network
Network Controls subnet and does Routing

Data
DataLink
Link Checks access ,data and frames

Physical
Physical Raw data or Binary transmission
38
 OSI Layers
Comparing OSI with TCP/IP Layers
OSI & TCP / IP Layers

OSI Layers TCP/IP Layers

Application
Application

Presentation
Presentation Application
Application

Session
Session

Transport
Transport Transport
Transport

Network
Network Internet
Internet

Data
DataLink
Link Network
Network
Access
Access
Physical
Physical
39
TCP/IP CONCEPTS
 TCP/IP

 Technically, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and

Internet Protocol (IP) are two distinct network
protocols.
 TCP and IP are so commonly used together, though,
that TCP/IP has become standard terminology to refer
to either *or* both of the protocols.
 IP roughly corresponds to the Network layer (layer 3)
in the OSI model
 TCP corresponds to the Transport layer (layer 4) in OSI.
 TCP/IP refers to network communications where the
TCP transport is used to deliver data across IP
networks.
 TCP/IP

TCP/IP is basically a protocol suit which consists of two protocols TCP and IP.
It is also referred to as a protocol stack i.e. a group of protocols that all
work together to allow software or hardware to perform a function. It uses
four layers that map to the OSI model as follows:
 WHY TCP/IP A SUITE FOR INTERNET ?

 Can be used to communicate across any set of

interconnected networks.
 Equally suited for both LAN & WAN communication.
 Includes specifications for common applications as
e-mail, remote login, terminal emulation, file
transfer etc.
 File Transfer- TFTP, FTP, NFS
 E-mail- SMTP
 Remote Login -TELNET, Rlogin
 Network Management - SNMP
 Name Management - DNS
 Ethernet

ETHERNET
 Ethernet is a communication method that has an
extremely wide installation base.
 In 1973 the first Ethernet frame was transmitted.
 The IEEE defined the standards for this method in the
802.3 Ethernet standard.
 It is a layer 1 and 2 function that handles hardware
addressing, and error checking. It also informs the
receiver what layer 3 protocol is in use inside the
frame.
 TCP/IP, ICMP, ARP, IPX, and other protocols are
encapsulated in Ethernet frames, but they are not a
part of the specification.

44
ETHERNET DETAILS
 Ethernet Frame
 MAC Addressing
 Frame Check Sequence
 OSI and Framing
 Errors
 CRC Errors
 Late Collisions
 CSMA/CD
 Auto-Negotiation
 Full Duplex
 Half Duplex

45
 Ethernet - Principle
A B N

CSMA/CD: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with

Collision Detect
Condition: Station B is trying to send
message. Station
A and N want to save a file to file server
Steps:
1. Listen for nil-traffic on network
2. Send data ( both B and A send data at same time)
3. Collision occurs
4. Back-off ( random time to retry )
5. Retry successful
 Ethernet

ETHERNET FRAME

47
FRAME LENGTH

48
IP Addressing
OBJECTIVE
 Structure of an IP address
 Classful IP addresses
 Limitations and problems with classful
IP addresses
 Subnetting
 CIDR
 IP Version 6 addresses
WHAT IS AN IP ADDRESS?
 An IP address is a unique global
address for a network interface

 An IP address:
- is a 32 bit long identifier
- encodes a network number
(network prefix) and a host
number
IP ADDRESS PURPOSE
 IPv4 Address / History
 IPv4 was introduced in 1981
 It was designed with 32 bits
 Total number of IPv4 addresses are 232 (4.2 billion)
 It is represented as octet form.
 During 1980s, very few Companies/Organizations had
computer networks, Internet came into existence later
on
 As more companies & organizations started building
networks and Internet started to grow the need for
IPv4 addresses to grow
IPV-4 CHALLENGE
 IP Address allocation / IANA
 IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority)
www.iana.org allocates IPs (both IPv4 & IPv6) to RIR
(Regional Internet Registry)
 These RIRs will further distribute the IPs to NIR (National
Internet Registry)
 These NIRs will further distribute the IPs to LIR (Local
Internet Registry)
 These LIRs will further distribute the IPs to ISP (Internet
Service Provider)
 ISPs in turn will provide the IPs to end users/companies/
organizations
Regional Internet Registry (RIRs)
IPV-4
IPV-4 ADDRESS RANGE
IP ADDRESS CLASSIFICATION
PRIORITY BITS
CLASS A RANGE
CLASS B RANGE
CLASS C RANGE
CLASS D RANGE
CLASS E RANGE
OCTET FORMAT
CLASS A NET WORK NOS. AND HOSTS
CLASS B NET WORK NOS. AND HOSTS
CLASS C NET WORK NOS. AND HOSTS
EXAMPLE CLASS –A
SUBNET MASK – EXAMPLE
PRIVATE IP ADDRESS
PUBLIC IP ADDRESS V/ S PRIVATE IP ADDRESS
SWITCHING
 COLLISION DOMAIN

A collision domain is a logical area in a

computer network where data packets can
"collide" with one another, in particular in the
Ethernet networking protocol.
The more collisions in a network the less
efficient it is.

.
BROADCAST DOMAIN:

A broadcast domain is a logical area in a

computer network where any computer
connected to the computer network can
directly transmit to any other in the
domain without having to go through a
routing device.

Conditions:
1. They should belong to the same VLAN.
SWITCHES

A switch is a concentrator device that provides a

central connection point for cables from workstations,
servers, and peripherals. In a star topology, twisted-
pair wire is run from each workstation to a central
switch.

Switches no longer broadcast networks, they

memorize addressing of computers and send the
information to the correct location directly.
 SWITCHES - FORWARDING

“I know where the source MAC is now. But I still MAC

Port
don’t know about the destination. I’ll send this
frame everywhere. First, I’ll update my 1 00c017b00004
Forwarding Table.”
CATALYST 3550
1
SYSTEM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
RPS

STAT
UTIL 2
DUPLEX
SPEED

Dest MAC Source MAC

00000c123456 00c017b00004 IP Header Data/FCS

“Hey, that’s for

me. Here’s a
` response.” `

00c017b00004 00000c123456 c0ffee123456

 Switches - Forwarding

“Here’s a new source MAC. I’ll note it in my table. Port MAC

The destination is on port 1, so I’ll only forward it 1 00c017b00004
there.”
2 00000c123456
CATALYST 3550
1
SYSTEM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
RPS

STAT
UTIL 2
DUPLEX
SPEED

Dest MAC Source MAC

00c017b00004 00000c123456 IP Header Data/FCS

` `

00c017b00004 00000c123456 c0ffee123456

 WHAT IS LAYER 2 SWITCHING?

Switching Table
MAC Output
Address Interface
Destination
0002.ABCD.EF12 AAAA.1111.BBBB Ethernet 10
3215.2511.AFFC Ethernet 5
0001.2345.6789 Ethernet 0
LAN Frame Packet 3005.6798.AA05 Ethernet 0
0002.ABCD.EF12 Ethernet 6
Switching E6
E0 0005.3ADB.1112 Ethernet 6
IP Address: 1.1.1.1
IP Address: 1.1.1.2
MAC Address:
0001.2345.6789 MAC Address:
0002.ABCD.EF12

 Data link layer (Layer 2) forwarding

 Forwards based on MAC layer address
 Wire-speed multiport bridge
 Transparent to upper layers
 Layer-3 Switches
• Layer-3 switches operate in both layer 2 (data link
layer) and 3 (network layer)
• Can perform both MAC switching and IP routing
• A combination of switch and router but much faster
and easier to configure than router

Why Layer-3
switches?
• Traffic of LAN is no longer
local
• Speed of LAN is much
faster
• Need a much faster router,
however, very expensive 81
 DIFFERENCE L-2 VS L-3 SWITCH
 L-2  L-3
 Functions at the network
 A switching layer.
hub that  A switch that performs multi
operates at a port V LAN and data
data link layer pipelining functions of a
standard L–2 switch.
and builds  But can perform basic
table of MAC routing functions between
address of all virtual LANs.
the connected
 Provides routing at
switching speeds.
stations.  They are programmable
 Switches the and have console ports.
Types of Switches

• Manageable switches
On a Manageable switch an IP address can be assigned and

configurations can be made. It has a console port .

• Unmanageable switches
On an Unmanageable switch configurations cannot be made,

an IP address cannot be assigned as there is no console port.

83
 Switch features: Auto Negotiation

 Ethernet connections today support different speeds and duplex.

Commonly 10Mbps, 100Mbps, and 1000Mbps, Full duplex or half duplex.
 Devices involved in an Ethernet connection can communicate with Fast
Link Pulse (FLP) each other to decide what the highest common speed
is. This communication is called Auto-Negotiation.
 Auto negotiation fails usually because one of the connected device is set
to manual and the other to auto-negotiation.

I can operate at I can operate at

10/100Mbps half 10/100Mbps full or
duplex half duplex

Switch
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 CATALYST 3550
1 2
SYSTEM
RPS

STAT
UTIL
DUPLEX
SPEED 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

This results in a 100Mbps half duplex connection

 Switch features: VLAN

 VLANs are Virtual Local Area Networks. They essentially

take one physical switch and break it up into smaller
logical switches.
 If a switch is configured with 2 VLANs, devices on each
VLAN will only receive broadcast traffic from stations on
their VLAN. Frames are not directly forwarded from VLAN
to VLAN unless they are routed.
SYSTEM
RPS

STAT
UTIL
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
CATALYST 3550
1

2
DUPLEX
SPEED

` ` ` `

Vlan 1 Port 1-8 Vlan 2 Port 9 - 24

Data Transmission on WAN
 WAN Networks

WAN is a collection of Interconnected Networks (LANs)

Essentially covers very large geographical area, global network
 LAN is a inside network & it is a private network where as WAN is mostly
public network.
 Internet is a true WAN network & it is public network, public IP
addresses are used
 WHAT IS A ROUTER ?
 Router is an inter-networking device.
 It is a Network Layer (layer –3) device.
 It is a specialized computer
(Hardware) ,that runs in conjunction
with a dedicated software (IOS)
&configurations to move data.
 Inter-network communication means….
Best Path Selection
Packet switching
Packet forwarding
FIXED ROUTER MODULAR ROUTER
 Fixed Router are just  Modular Router are
like a branded PC just like a Assembled
where modification of PC where modification
interfaces is not of interfaces is
possible possible
 Access Layer Routers
are example of Fixed  Distribution and Core
Router except 1600 Layer Routers example
and 1700 series of Modular Router
Boot sequence Power
Power onon Self
Self Test
Test
(verifies)
(verifies) the
the hardware
hardware
POST
Contact
Contact the
the ROM
ROM
Loads
Loads the
the Bootstrap
Bootstrap Program
Program
ROM
&
& Search
Search where
where IOS
IOS is
is located
located

FLASH
IOS
IOS found
found in
in Flash
Flash
Loading
Loading IOSIOS
NVRAM
NVRAM
NVRAM configuration
configuration copied
copied into
into
RAM
RAM
RAM

Flash
Flash contacts
contacts the
the NVRAM
NVRAM
For
For Configuration
Configuration File
File
2601 Model Router

29
 Router LAN Interface Connection

An
An IP
IPaddress
address needs
needs to
to be
beassigned
assignedto
to this
this interface
interfaceand
anditit
should
shouldbebein
inthe
thesame
samenetwork
networkasasof
ofthe
theLAN.
LAN.

E0
Straight Cable
192.168.1.150/24

Straight Cable

1.1 1.2 1.3

LAN - 192.168.1.0/24
93
 DEFAULT GATEWAY
Default gateway
 Devices on a network must
be configured with a
default gateway. This is
Subnet 192.168.1.0
the address of a router on
that network.
 Packets intended for ` ` `

devices on different
networks must be sent to
the default gateway. It is ` `

up to the default gateway

to forward the packet from
there.
 ROUTING ESSENTIALS

What is Routing?
Routing is the act of moving information across an
internetwork from a source to a destination.
Along the way, at least one intermediate node typically is
encountered.
Routing involves two basic activities:
 Determining optimal or best routing paths
 Transport or delivery of packets to the destination.
(Switching)

OSPF Routing J.Vijay Kumar, INW-2

95
 TYPES OF ROUTING

Static Dynamic

 Uses a route that a  Uses Routing

network Protocols to
administrator automatically
enters into the know about the
router manually path to any
 Destination destination
Network Address is networks
entered manually  Advertises Self
Static Routing

• I t is configured by Administrator manually.

• Mandatory need of Destination Network I D

• I t is Secure & fast

• Used for Small organization which have network of

10-15 Routers.

• Administrative distance for Static Router is 0 and 1.

I t is the “trustworthiness” of the routing information.

Lesser Administrative distance higher the preference.

5
Disadvantages of Static Routing

• Administrative work is more.

• Compulsory need of Destination Network I D

• Used for only Small organization

• I t cannot dynamically update topology changes.

2
Default Routing

• A Default routing protocol is configured for

unknown destinations.

• Generally used in the internet where the destinations

are unknown.

Example : The address of yahoo is unknown.

• Configured at end points

• I t is last preferred routing

2
Types of Dynamic Routing Protocols

• Distance Vector Protocol

• Link State Protocol

• Hybrid Protocol

5
DISTANCE VECTOR PROTOCOL
 Each router receives the routing table
from its neighboring router.
 Router discovers the best path based
on accumulated metrics from each
neighbor.
 Does not allow a router to know about
the exact topology of the network.
 Metric values vary from 1 to 15.
 Example is RIP.
Distance Vector Protocol

• Periodic updates

• Classful routing protocol

• Full Routing tables are exchanged

• Updates are broadcasted

• Also known as “Routing By Rumor”

• Example: RI P, I GRP

6
Routing I nformation Protocol

• Open Standard Protocol

• Classful routing protocol

• Updates are broadcasted via 255.255.255.255

• Works with Bellman ford algorithm

• Administrative distance is 120

• Metric : Hop count

Max Hop counts : 15 Max routers : 16

• Load Balancing of 4 equal paths

• Used for small organizations

9
Disadvantages of RI P

• More Bandwidth utilization

• Doesn’t consider the bandwidth, works only with hop

counts

• Slow convergence

• Formation of Routing loops

12
 LINK STATE PROTOCOL
 Uses same link state updates.
 Keeps track of neighbors.
 For every change in link state database,the
algorithm recalculates the best path
&updates the routing table.
 Every router takes the topology change in
account dynamically
 Upper limit is 65,535.Can accommodate vast
NW.
 LSP routing advertisements are broadcast
much less often,only when change is
detected.

Link State Protocol

• Link state updates

• Classless routing protocol

• Missing routes are only exchanged

• Updates are multicasted

• Also known as “ Routing by I ntelligence”

• Example : OSPF, I S-I S

7
Open Shortest Path First

• Open standard protocol

• Successor of RI P

• Classless routing protocol

• Works with Link State Advertisements

• Updates are Multicast

• Works with Dijkstra algorithm, also called SPF

algorithm

• Administrative distance is 110

• Metric = Cost =108/ Bandwidth in bps (CI SCO)

2
OSPF (contd..)

• Hello packets are send every 10 seconds

• Faster Convergence

• Hierarchical design with Multiple Areas

• Area 0 is called the backbone area

• Router I D

The highest I P address of the active physical interface

of the router is Router I D.

I f logical interface is configured, the highest I P

address of the logical interface is Router I D

3
OSPF Tables

• I t maintains three tables :

Neighbor Table

Neighbor table contains information about the directly

connected ospf neighbors forming adjacency.

Database table

Database table contains information about the entire

view of the topology with respect to each router.

Routing information Table

Routing table contains information about the best path

calculated by the shortest path first algorithm in the
database table.
4
DISADVANTAGES OF OSPF
 Consumes more Memory and CPU
processing.
 Complex configuration.
Hybrid Protocol

• Link state updates

• Classless routing protocol

• Missing routes are only exchanged

• Updates are multicasted

• Also known as “ Routing by I ntelligence”

• Example : EI GRP

8
 SUBNETTING
 Problem:
Organizations have University
UniversityNetwork
Network
multiple networks
which are Engineering Medical
School
independently School
managed
 Solution 1: Allocate a separate Library
network address for each
network
 Difficult to manage
 From the outside of the
organization, each network
must be addressable.

Add another
Solution 2: Subnetting
level of hierarchy to the
IP addressing structure
 ADDRESS ASSIGNMENT WITH SUBNETTING
 Each part of the organization is allocated a range of IP addresses
(subnets or subnetworks)
 Addresses in each subnet can be administered locally

128.143.0.
0/16
University
UniversityNetwork
Network

128.143.71.0/ Engineering Medical 128.143.56.0/

24 School 24
School
128.143.136.
0/24
Library

128.143.121.0
/24
 BASIC IDEA OF SUBNETTING
 Split the host number portion of an IP address
into a subnet number and a (smaller) host
number.
 Result is a 3-layer hierarchy
network prefix host number

network prefix subnet number host number

extended network prefix

 Then:
 Subnets can be freely assigned within the organization
 Internally, subnets are treated as separate networks
 Subnet structure is not visible outside the organization
 SUBNETMASK
 Routers and hosts use an extended network prefix
(subnetmask) to identify the start of the host numbers

128.143 137.144

network prefix host number

128.143 137 144

network prefix subnet host number

number
extended network prefix

1111111111111111 1111111100000000

subnetmask

* Reduces router complexity. Since external routers do

not know about subnetting, the complexity of routing
tables at external routers is reduced.
EXAMPLE: SUBNETMASK

 128.143.0.0/16 is the IP address of the network

 128.143.137.0/24 is the IP address of the subnet
 128.143.137.144 is the IP address of the host
 255.255.255.0 (or ffffff00) is the subnet mask of the
host
 When subnetting is used, one generally speaks of a
“subnetmask” (instead of a netmask) and a “subnet”
(instead of a network)
 Use of subnetting or length of the subnet mask if
decided by the network administrator
 Consistency of subnet masks is responsibility of
administrator
NO SUBNETTING
 All hosts think that the other hosts are
on the same network

128.143.137.32/16 128.143.137.144/16 128.143.71.21/16 128.143.71.201/16

subnetmask: 255.255.0.0 subnetmask: 255.255.0.0 subnetmask: 255.255.0.0 subnetmask: 255.255.0.0

128.143.70.0/16
WITH SUBNETTING
 Hosts with same extended network
prefix belong to the same network

128.143.137.32/24 128.143.137.144/24 128.143.71.21/24 128.143.71.201/24

subnetmask: 255.255.255.0 subnetmask: 255.255.255.0 subnetmask: 255.255.255.0 subnetmask: 255.255.255.0

128.143.137.0/24 128.143.71.0/24
Subnet Subnet
128.143.0.0/16
WITH SUBNETTING
 Different subnetmasks lead to different
views of the size of the scope of the
network
128.143.137.32/26 128.143.137.144/26 128.143.71.21/24 128.143.71.201/16
subnetmask: 255.255.255.192 subnetmask: 255.255.255.192 subnetmask: 255.255.255.0 subnetmask: 255.255.0.0

128.143.71.0/24
128.143.137.0/26 128.143.137.128/26
Subnet
Subnet Subnet

128.143.0.0/16
PROBLEMS WITH CLASSFUL IP
ADDRESSES
 Flat address space. Routing tables on the
backbone Internet need to have an entry for each
network address. When Class C networks were
widely used, this created a problem. By the 1993,
the size of the routing tables started to outgrow the
capacity of routers.
 Too few network addresses for large networks
 Class A and Class B addresses were gone

 Limited flexibility for network addresses:

 Class A and B addresses are overkill (>64,000

addresses)
 Class C address is insufficient (requires 40 Class

C addresses)
CIDR - CLASSLESS INTERDOMAIN ROUTING

 Goals:
 New interpretation of the IP address space
 Restructure IP address assignments to increase efficiency
 Permits route aggregation to minimize route table entries

 CIDR (Classless Interdomain routing)

 abandons the notion of classes
 Key Concept: The length of the network prefix in the IP
addresses is kept arbitrary
 Consequence: Size of the network prefix must be provided
with an IP address
CIDR NOTATION
 CIDR notation of an IP address: 192.0.2.0/18
 "18" is the prefix length. It states that the first 18 bits are

the network prefix of the address (and 14 bits are

available for specific host addresses)

 CIDR notation can replace the use of subnetmasks (but is more

general)
 IP address 128.143.137.144 and subnetmask 255.255.255.0

becomes 128.143.137.144/24

 CIDR notation allows to drop traling zeros of network

addresses:
192.0.2.0/18 can be written as 192.0.2/18
 CIDR FLSM / VLSM

Customizing a subnet with a FIXED Length

Subnet Mask is called as FLSM .

Customizing a subnet with VARIABLE Length

Subnet is called as VLSM Mask .

VLSMs provide the capability to include more

than one subnet mask within a major network
1
3
6
Example – 2
MASK,SUBNETS,HOSTS
Class C : 192.168.1.0 /26 ,Class C : N.N.N.H
11000000.10101000.00000001.00000000
11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000
• No. of Subnet
= 2n – 2 (-2 is for First & Last Subnet Range)
= 22 – 2
= 4–2
= 2 Subnet
• No. of Host
= 2h – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 26 – 2
= 64 – 2
= 62 Hosts/Subnet
 VLSM
VLSM – the process of
sub-netting a subnet
to fit your needs
Example:
Subnet
10.1.0.0/16, 8
more bits are
borrowed again,
to create 256

subnets with a /24

mask.
Mask allows for 254
host addresses
per subnet
Subnets range
from: 10.1.0.0 /
24 to 10.1.255.0 /
24
Scenario

A divisional HQ is having 100 PC

• DIVISION – 192.168.1.0/24
– S&T
– ENG
– ELECT
– MECH
– ACCOUNTS

• Administrator wants inter-department communication

should not be possible ?
What is best the solution ?
Answer : You will go for FLSM i.e. Subnetting
Scenario (…continued)

Now we are also having sub departments

DIVISION
– S&T
– ENG
– PWAY
– WORKS
– MECH
– CARRIAGE
– WAGON
– TXR
– LOCO
– WORK SHOP
– ELECT
– TRAIN LIGH
– TRACTION
– Subnetting
SUB STN
– ACCOUNTS
Calculation of FLSM

Class C : N.N.N.H
110xxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx
Class C : 192.168.1.0
• No. of Subnet
= 2n – 2  Req. of Subnet
= 23 – 2  5 (-2 is for First & Last Subnet Range)
= 8–2
= 6 Subnet
• No. of Host
= 2h – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 25 – 2
= 32 – 2
= 30 Hosts/Subnet

HELP
FLSM (Continued…)

• Customize Subnet Mask =

IfIfyou
youconvert
convert33Host
HostBits
Bitsto
toNetwork
NetworkBits
Bits
255. 255.
6 Subnet &255.
30 224
Hosts/Subnet
6 Subnet & 30 Hosts/Subnet
11111111. 11111111. 11111111. 11100000
CustomizedSubnet
Customized SubnetMask
Mask

64
32
8
12
255.255.255.224
255.255.255.224
• Range of Networks
Network ID Broadcast
Subnet ID
Range
Subnet Range x
192.168.1.0 192.168.1.31
192.168.1.32 to 192.168.1.63.
192.168.1.32 to 192.168.1.63.
192.168.1.32 192.168.1.64192.168.1.63
to192.168.1.95
192.168.1.95
192.168.1.64 to
192.168.1.64 192.168.1.96192.168.1.95
to192.168.1.127
192.168.1.127
192.168.1.96 to
192.168.1.127
192.168.1.96 192.168.1.128 to192.168.1.159
192.168.1.159
192.168.1.128 to Valid Subnets
192.168.1.159
192.168.1.128192.168.1.160 to192.168.1.191
192.168.1.191
192.168.1.160 to
192.168.1.191
192.168.1.160192.168.1.192 to192.168.1.223
192.168.1.223
192.168.1.192 to
192.168.1.192 192.168.1.223
192.168.1.224 192.168.1.255 x
Assigning of the Ranges

A DIVISION
– S&T 192.168.1.32 – 1.63/27
– ENG 192.168.1.64 – 1.95/27
– PWAY
– WORKS
– MECH 192.168.1.96 – 1.127/27
– CARRIAGE
– WAGON
– TXR
– LOCO
– WORK SHOP
– ELECT 192.168.1.128 – 1.159/27
– TRAIN LIGH
– TRACTION
– SUB STN
– ACCOUNTS
192.168.1.160 – 1.191/27
Calculation of VLSM for CISCO Dept.

Class C : N.N.N.H
110xxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx
Class C : 192.168.1.64
• No. of Subnet
= 2n  Req. of Subnet
= 21  2
= 2
= 2 Subnet
• No. of Host
= 2h – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 24 – 2
= 16 – 2
= 14 Hosts/Subnet

HELP
VLSM (Continued…)

• Customize Subnet Mask =

IfIfyou
youconvert
convert11more
moreHost
HostBit
Bitto
toNetwork
NetworkBit
Bit
255. 255.
2 Subnet &255.
14 240
Hosts/Subnet
2 Subnet & 14 Hosts/Subnet
11111111. 11111111. 11111111. 11110000
CustomizeSubnet
Customize SubnetMask
Mask

64
32
16
8
12
255.255.255.240
255.255.255.240
• Range of Networks
Network ID Broadcast
Subnet ID
Range
Subnet Range
192.168.1.64 192.168.1.64
– 192.168.1.79
to192.168.1.79
192.168.1.79
192.168.1.64 to
192.168.1.80 –192.168.1.80
192.168.1.95
to 192.168.1.95 Valid Subnets
192.168.1.80 to 192.168.1.95
Assigning of the Ranges

DIV.HQ
– S&T 192.168.1.32 – 1.63/27
– ENG 192.168.1.64 – 1.95/27
– PWAY 192.168.1.64 – 1.79/28
– WORKS 192.168.1.80 – 1.95/28
– MECH 192.168.1.96 – 1.127/27
– CARRIAGE
– WAGON
– TXR
– LOCO
– WORK SHOP
– ELECT 192.168.1.128 – 1.159/27
– TRAIN LIGH
– TRACTION
– SUB STN
– ACCOUNTS
192.168.1.160 – 1.191/27
Calculation of VLSM for Firewall Dept.

Class C : N.N.N.H
110xxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx
Class C : 192.168.1.96
• No. of Subnet
= 2n  Req. of Subnet
= 23  5
= 8
= 8 Subnet
• No. of Host
= 2h – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 22 – 2
= 4–2
= 2 Hosts/Subnet

HELP
VLSM (Continued…)

• Customize Subnet Mask =

IfIfyou
youconvert
convert33more
moreHost
HostBit
Bitto
toNetwork
NetworkBit
Bit
255. 255.
8 Subnet &255.
2 252
Hosts/Subnet
8 Subnet & 2 Hosts/Subnet
11111111. 11111111. 11111111. 11111100
CustomizedSubnet
Customized SubnetMask
Mask

8
4
64
32
16
8
12
255.255.255.252
255.255.255.252
• Range of Networks
Network ID SubnetRange
Broadcast
Subnet Range
ID
192.168.1.96
192.168.1.96 192.168.1.96
– to192.168.1.99
192.168.1.99
192.168.1.99
to
192.168.1.100
192.168.1.100 –
192.168.1.100 to192.168.1.103
192.168.1.103
192.168.1.103
to
192.168.1.104
192.168.1.104 –
192.168.1.104 to192.168.1.107
192.168.1.107
192.168.1.107
to
192.168.1.108
192.168.1.108 –
192.168.1.108 to192.168.1.111
192.168.1.111
192.168.1.111
to Valid Subnets
192.168.1.112
192.168.1.112 –
192.168.1.112 to192.168.1.115
192.168.1.115
192.168.1.115
to
192.168.1.116
192.168.1.116 –
192.168.1.116 to192.168.1.119
192.168.1.119
192.168.1.119
to
192.168.1.120
192.168.1.120 –
192.168.1.120 to192.168.1.123
192.168.1.123
192.168.1.123
to
192.168.1.124
192.168.1.124 to192.168.1.127
– Subnetting
192.168.1.124 192.168.1.127
192.168.1.127
to
Assigning of the Ranges

DIVISION
– S&T 192.168.1.32 – 1.63/27
– ENG 192.168.1.64 – 1.95/27
– PWAY 192.168.1.64 – 1.79/28
– WORKS 192.168.1.80 – 1.95/28
– MECH 192.168.1.96 – 1.127/27
– CARRIAGE 192.168.1.96 – 1.99/30
– WAGON 192.168.1.100 – 1.103/30
– TXR 192.168.1.104 – 1.107/30
– LOCO 192.168.1.108 – 1.111/30
– WORK SHOP 192.168.1.112 – 1.115/30
– ELECT 192.168.1.128 – 1.159/27
– TRAIN LIGH
– TRACTION
– SUB STN
– ACCOUNTS
192.168.1.160 – 1.191/27
Calculation of VLSM for Solaris Dept.

Class C : N.N.N.H
110xxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx
Class C : 192.168.1.128
• No. of Subnet
= 2n  Req. of Subnet
= 22  3
= 4
= 4 Subnet
• No. of Host
= 2h – 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 23 – 2
= 8–2
= 6 Hosts/Subnet

HELP
VLSM (Continued…)

• Customize Subnet Mask =

IfIfyou
youconvert
convert22more
moreHost
HostBit
Bitto
toNetwork
NetworkBit
Bit
255. 255.
4 Subnet &255.
6 248
Hosts/Subnet
4 Subnet & 6 Hosts/Subnet
11111111. 11111111. 11111111. 11111000
CustomizeSubnet
Customize SubnetMask
Mask

8
64
32
16
8
12
255.255.255.248
255.255.255.248
• Range of Networks
Network ID SubnetRange
Broadcast
Subnet Range
ID
192.168.1.128
192.168.1.128 –
192.168.1.128 to192.168.1.135
192.168.1.135
192.168.1.135
to
192.168.1.136
192.168.1.136 –
192.168.1.136 to192.168.1.143
192.168.1.143
192.168.1.143
to
192.168.1.144
192.168.1.144 –
192.168.1.144 192.168.1.151Valid Subnets
to192.168.1.151
192.168.1.151
to
192.168.1.152
192.168.1.152 –
192.168.1.152 to192.168.1.159
192.168.1.159
192.168.1.159
to
Assigning of the Ranges

DIVISION
– S&T 192.168.1.32 – 1.63/27
– ENG 192.168.1.64 – 1.95/27
– PWAY 192.168.1.64 – 1.79/28
– WORKS 192.168.1.80 – 1.95/28
– MECH 192.168.1.96 – 1.127/27
– CARRIAGE 192.168.1.96 – 1.99/30
– WAGON 192.168.1.100 – 1.103/30
– TXR 192.168.1.104 – 1.107/30
– LOCO 192.168.1.108 – 1.111/30
– WORK SHOP 192.168.1.112 – 1.115/30
– ELECT 192.168.1.128 – 1.159/27
– TRAIN LIGH 192.168.1.128 – 1.135/29
– TRACTION 192.168.1.136 – 1.143/29
– SUB STN
192.168.1.144 – 1.51/29
– ACCOUNTS
192.168.1.160 – 1.191/27
 EXTERNAL WAN ROUTER 192.168.1.0/24

1.32/27 1.160/27

1.64/27 1.128/27 1.144/29

1.64/28 1.136/29

1.96/27
1.79/28 1.128/29

1.96/30 1.112/30

1.100/30 1.108/30
1.104/30
Subnetting
1
5
3
Q.1 GIVEN AN CLASS-B IP
ADDRESS 130.5.2.144, YOU
HAVE PURPOSELY SUB NETTED
IT BY BORROWING 8 BITS FROM
HOST. NOW TELL ME THIS IP NO.
BELONGS TO WHICH SUBNET ,ITS
SIZE AND WHAT IS ITS SUBNET
MASK ?
 SOLUTION FOR SUBNET, SIZE
&MASK

Class B address with 8 bits borrowed for the subnet.

130.5.2.144 (8 bits borrowed for sub netting) routes to subnet 130.5.2.0
rather than just to network 130.5.0.0.
Q.2 GIVEN AN CLASS-C IP
ADDRESS 197.15.22.131, YOU
HAVE PURPOSELY SUB NETTED IT
BY BORROWING 3 BITS. NOW TELL
ME THIS IP NO. BELONGS TO
WHICH SUBNET ,ITS SIZE AND
WHAT IS ITS SUBNET MASK ?
SOLUTION FOR SUBNET SIZE
&MASK

11000101 00001111 00010110 100 00011

Host
Network Field SN
Field

The address 197.15.22.131 would be on the 5 th

subnet i.e 197.15.22.128.

Class C address 197.15.22.131 with a subnet mask of

255.255.255.224 (3 bits borrowed)
Q.3 GIVEN AN CIDR IP ADDRESS
10.16.3.65 , YOU ARE REQUIRED
TO SUPER NET IT BY
SURRENDERING ONE BIT. NOW
TELL ME THIS IP NO. BELONGS
TO WHICH SUBNET ,ITS SIZE AND
WHAT IS ITS SUPERNET MASK ?
SOLUTION FOR SUPERNET ITS NET
SIZE &MASK

00001010 00010000 0000001 1 01000001

Network Field SN Host Field

The address 10.16.3.65 would be on the supernet

10.16.2.0. with a supernet mask of 255.255.254.0

Class B address 10.16.3.65 (1bits surrendered) will have

valid IPs from 10.16.2.1 to10.16.2.255 plus 10.16.3.0 to
10.16.3.254 i.e 510 hosts and its BC IP would be
10.16.3.255.
IPV6 - IP VERSION 6
 IP Version 6
 Is the successor to the currently used IPv4
 Specification completed in 1994
 Makes improvements to IPv4 (no revolutionary
changes)

 One (not the only !) feature of IPv6 is a significant

increase in of the IP address to 128 bits (16
bytes)
 IPv6 will solve – for the foreseeable future – the problems
with IP addressing
 1024 addresses per square inch on the surface of the Earth.
IPV6 HEADER
32 bits
version Traffic Class Flow Label
(4 bits) (8 bits) (24 bits)
Next Header
Payload Length (16 bits) Hop Limits (8 bits)
(8 bits)

Source IP address (128 bits)

Destination IP address (128 bits)

Ethernet Header IPv6 Header TCP Header Application data Ethernet Trailer

Ethernet frame
 IPV6 VS. IPV4: ADDRESS
COMPARISON
 IPv4 has a maximum of
232  4 billion addresses
 IPv6 has a maximum of
2128 = (232)4  4 billion x 4 billion x 4 billion
x 4 billion addresses
NOTATION OF IPV6 ADDRESSES
 Convention: The 128-bit IPv6 address is written
as eight 16-bit integers (using hexadecimal
digits for each integer)
CEDF:BP76:3245:4464:FACE:2E50:3025:DF12

 Short notation:
 Abbreviations of leading zeroes:
CEDF:BP76:0000:0000:009E:0000:3025:DF12
 CEDF:BP76:0:0:9E :0:3025:DF12
 “:0000:0000:0000” can be written as “::”
CEDF:BP76:0:0:FACE:0:3025:DF12  CEDF:BP76::FACE:0:3025:DF12
 IPv6 addresses derived from IPv4 addresses have 96 leading zero bits.
Convention allows to use IPv4 notation for the last 32 bits.
::80:8F:89:90  ::128.143.137.144
IPV6 PROVIDER-BASED ADDRESSES
 The first IPv6 addresses will be allocated to a provider-
based plan
Type Registry Provider Subscriber Subnetwork Interface
010 ID ID ID ID ID

 Type: Format Prefix set to“010” for provider-based

addresses (unicast / multicast)
 Registry: identifies the agency that registered the address
The following fields have a variable length (recommeded length in “()”)
 Provider: Id of Internet access provider (16 bits)
 Subscriber: Id of the organization at provider (24 bits)
 Subnetwork: Id of subnet within organization (32 bits)
 Interface: identifies an interface at a node (48 bits)
THANK YOU