MGT 232: Leadership and

Organizational Behavior

Course Instructor
ANISH POUDEL
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COURSE CONTENT

• Unit-I Introduction to Organizational Behavior 6 LHS

• Unit-II Perception and Learning 4 LHS

• Unit-III Personality and Job Satisfaction 4 LHS

• Unit-IV Organization Conflict and Stress 5 LHS

• Unit-V Introduction to Leadership 4 LHS

• Unit-VI Theories of Effective Leadership & Contemporary Leadership

Styles 7 LHS
• Unit-VII Leadership Development in Organization 2 LHS
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 Unit-II
Perception and Learning 4 LHS
• Concept of Perception
• Factors Affecting Perception
• Attribution Theory
• Attribution Errors
• Perception and Individual Decision Making
• Concept of Learning
• Learning Theories
• Factors Influencing Learning
• Behavior Modification
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 Look at the chart and say the COLOR
not the word

Left – Right Conflict

Your right brain tries to say the color but your left brain insists on reading the word.
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Shimmer 7
Any movement you see is an illusion!

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“ WE DON’T SEE THINGS AS THEY ARE, WE

SEE THINGS AS WE ARE.”

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Concept of Perception
• Perception is the process by which an individual
organizes and interprets his or her sensory
impression in order to give meaning to the
environment s/he is exposed to.
• It is a way of sensing.
• Perception refers to the way we try to understand
the world around us.
• We gather information through our five sense
organs (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell) but
perception adds meaning to these sensory inputs.
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Concept of Perception
• A situation may be the same but the interpretation
of that situation by two individuals may be hugely
different.
• It is the process of interpreting something that we
see or hear in our mind and use it later to judge
and give a verdict on a situation, person, group,
etc.
• Perception is the process by which people select,
organize, interpret, and respond to information
from the world around them.
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Concept of Perception
• According to S. P. Robbins, "Perception is a process by
which individuals organize and interpret their sensory
impressions in order to give meaning to their environment."
• According to Fred Luthans, “Perception is a complex
cognitive process by which persons make interpretations of
the stimulus or situation they are faced with”.
• In conclusion, perception is a process by which individuals
organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to
give meaning to their environment. However, individuals
differ in the way they see, interpret and understand a
particular event.

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Perceptual Process
• The perceptual process is a complex
psychological process, making a person see a
particular object in a particular manner and
interpret it accordingly. It consists of the
following elements:
1. Environmental stimuli
2. Perceptual selection
3. Perceptual organization
4. Interpretation

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P
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P
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Contd..
• Environmental Stimuli: Environmental stimuli is also known as
external stimuli or situation that refers to the environmental forces
which are continuously bombarding our five senses – feeling, hearing,
seeing, smelling and tasting. It is the beginning stage of the perceptual
process because an individual considers only such information that is
necessary for a reaction.
• Perceptual Selection: At this stage, an individual gives selective
attention to information received from the environment. Various
external and internal attention factors as size, intensity, movements,
novelty, personality, interest, learning, etc. affect perceptual selectivity.
This stage is also known as filtering information. It filters out
information that is discomforting, that seems irrelevant, or that
contradicts one’s values and beliefs. Eg: full page advertisement in a
newspaper, a very tall person in crowd, a loud noise, bright light, etc.
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Contd..
• Perceptual Organization: At this stage, an individual
processes and classifies available information in a logical
manner. An individual makes grouping of information by
considering some basic principles such as closure, continuity,
similarity and proximity. The selected information is grouped
into systematic way so that it is easy to recognize.
• Interpretation: Finally, the individual assigns meaning to
the information received from environment. It is the most
important aspect of individual perception. It is highly
subjective and judgmental in nature. In real life situation,
interpretation is influenced by many factors as attitude,
feelings, behavior, motivation, etc.
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Factors Influencing Perception
• The factors affecting perception of individual can be
grouped into the following three categories:
• Factors in Perceiver: When an individual looks at a
target and attempts to interpret what s/he sees, that
interpretation is heavily influenced by personal
characteristics of perceiver.
• Factors in Target( Objects): Characteristics of the
target that is being observed can affect what is perceived.
• Factors in Situation: The context in which we see
objects/events is important. Elements in the surrounding
environment influence our perception.

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Contd…
1. Factors in the Perceiver : These factors are inside the perceiver. They
are as follows:
a. Attitude: Attitude is a judgmental statement concerning objects, people
or events. It affects in individual perception and behavior. It can be
positive or negative. For eg: if I have a negative attitude to my teacher
then I will not even care about the right things told by him.
b. Experience: The level of experience of an individual affects on
perception about object or target. Past experience is considered for
showing certain behavior. For eg: second or subsequent visit to a historic
place. A good computer hacker can recognize scams more quickly than a
non-programmer.
c. Motives: It is the reason for the action of individuals which gives purpose
and direction to certain behavior. Motive is nothing but unsatisfied needs.
For eg: people who are hungry tend to see images of foods.

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Contd…
d. Personality: Personality involves sum-total of internal and external
traits of an individual. It shows how an individual looks, feels, decides,
acts, reacts and interacts with others.
e. Values: Values represent individual’s sense of what is right or wrong
and desirable or undesirable. Some of the elements of value are
freedom, pleasure, self-respect, honesty, obedience, and equality. Such
values and norms of individuals provide impact on their perception and
behavior.
f. Interest: . Different person may have considerably different interest
due to difference in their ability, skill, knowledge, resources etc. For eg:
Some people are more interested in sports than the curriculum courses.
g. Expectation: Person's expectation in life also affect in his perception.
Every person will see what he expects to see. For eg: backbenchers are
perceived as a weak students in exams by the teachers.
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Contd…
2. Factors in the Object/Target: Physical appearance plays an
important role in one’s perception of the others. These factors
are within the things to be perceived. They are:
a. Contrast: The contrast in color, size, and design provides
impact on perceptual process. An object which is differed
from background color will draw attention of perceivers. For
eg: in newspaper advertisement, a golden egg is put in the
middle of a group chicken eggs in a basket which will make
the golden egg more noticeable to viewers.
b. Intensity: It shows that the more intense external force
means that more likely it is to be perceived. For example, loud
noise would be noticed more than soft sound.
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Contd…
c. Motion: Individuals observe more to movable objects
than that are in stationery position. For example,
people will pay more attention to a flying airplane
than that is standing in airport.
d. Size: Size of object provides impact on perceiver. It is
said that the larger the size of object, the more is the
probability that it is perceived. For example, big
hoarding boards, full page of advertisement in
newspaper attract to more viewers than a few line
classified advertisement.

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Contd…
e. Novelty/Familiarity: Novelty is concerned with newness or
originality whereas familiarity relates to experience. Novelty or
familiarity will draw attention of perceivers, depending on the
circumstances. For example: people would quickly notice an
elephant walking along a city street.
f. Repetition: It means when any information is given repeatedly
it will draw the attention of people. For example, when an
advertisement is given repeatedly in a newspaper, it will draw
the attention of readers.
g. Proximity: A group of objects that are close together will be
perceived as a whole. For example, many employees in an
organization may be identified as a single group because of
physical proximity.
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Contd…
3. Factors in the Situation: The situation or the context in which we see
objects or events is important to shape our perception. They are:
a. Time: When an object, people or event is realized also affect in
perception of an individual. For example, if I have a negative attitude to
my teacher then I will not even care about the right things told by him.
When an officer sees his subordinate talking with a senior officer of
corporate office in a very friendly way in an informal gathering, the
officer may carry good impression about that subordinate in future
performance.
b. Work Setting: The work setting situation also provide impact in
perception of individuals. For example, when a manager is working in
stress situation his perception toward subordinates may differ as
compare to working is pleasant situation.
c. Social Setting: The changing social setting also provides impact on
perception of individuals. For example, if an individual arrives in 26
restaurant wearing informal dress no one will notice, however, if that
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Perception & Individual
Decision Making
• Decision making is process of choosing from among
two or more alternatives. Most decisions involve one
or more problems.
• Individual decision making is always affected by
human perception about the problem.
• Managers at all levels make decisions according to
their authority and responsibility.
• Not only managers, even non-managerial employees
also make decisions but the impact of their decisions
to the organization is very much less.
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Perception & Individual
Decision Making
• The decision making process involves the following steps which are
also influenced by perception.
1. Defining the problem: A perceived discrepancy between the current
state of affairs and the desired state. Every decision problem
requires selection, organization and interpretation of information.
2. Developing Alternatives: Once the problem has been identified and
effectively defined, the second step is to develop and evaluate the
relevant alternatives. The perception of the decision maker influences
the development and evaluation of alternatives.
3. Making a Choice: It is the selection of the best alternative. The final
choice is influenced by the perception of the decision-maker.
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Principles of Perceptual
Selection

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Contd…
1. Principle of Contrast: This principle emphasizes that
contrast in colour, size, and design provides impact on
perceptual process. An object which is differed from
background colour will draw attention of perceivers.
2. Principles of Intensity: In practice the loud noise would be
noticed more by people than soft sound. This principle would
be followed by the managers to draw the attention of their
subordinates.
3. Principle of Motion: This principle emphasizes that
individuals observe more to movable objects than that are in
stationery position. This principle is used for advertisement in
electronic visual media like in games and sports, cultural
programs etc.
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4. Principle of Size: It is said that the larger the size of object,
Contd…
5. Principle of Novelty/Familiarity. : Novelty is concerned with
newness or originality whereas familiarity relates to
experience. One is likely to mark a familiar face in a crowd or a
familiar voice even if there is a lot of noise and confusion.
6. Principle of Repetition: This principle emphasizes that more
repeated external stimuli will draw the attention of perceiver
than a single one. For example, when an advertisement is
given repeatedly in a newspaper, it will draw the attention of
readers.
7. Principle of Proximity: According to this principle a group of
objects that are close together will be perceived as a whole.
For example, many employees in an organization may be
identified as a single group because of physical proximity.
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Attribution Theory
• Proposed by H.H Kelley.
• Attribution is how people explain the cause of behavior.
• Attribution theory refers to the ways in which we judge people differently,
depending on what meaning we attribute to a given behavior.
• When individuals observe behavior they attempt to determine whether it is
internally or externally caused.
• Internally caused behaviors are those that are believed to be under the
personal control of the individual or have been done deliberately by him.
• Externally caused behavior is seen as resulting from outside causes, that
is the person is seen as having been compelled to behave in a particular
way by the force of the situation, and not because of his own choice.
• For understanding an individual behavior it is necessary to observe or
perceive his behavior.
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Determination of Attribution
Theory

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Determination of Attribution
Theory
• The determination of internally or externally caused behavior
depends largely on three factors
• Distinctiveness: refers whether an individual shows different behavior in
different situation. For eg: if Mr. X only smokes when he is out with
friends, his behavior is high in distinctiveness.
• Consensus: if everyone who is faced with similar situations responds in
the same way we can say that behavior shows consensus. For eg: Mr. X
smokes a cigarette when he goes out for a meal with his friend. If his
friend smokes, his behavior is high in consensus.
• Consistency: refers to extent to which the person shows similar behavior
every time the situation occurs. For eg: if Mr. X only smokes when he is out
with friends, consistency is high. If he only smokes on one special
occasion, consistency is low. If consistency in behavior is low it is
considered the reason is external. Similarly, if consistency in behavior is
high it is considered the reason is internal.
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Attribution Errors
 Attribution errors are concerned with doing mistakes
while understanding situation and showing certain
behavior.

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Attribution Errors
• Fundamental Attribution Error: It is concerned
with making judgments about the behavior of other
people by focusing internal factors rather than external
factors. The tendency to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence of
internal factors when making judgment about the
behavior of others.
• Self Serving Bias: It is tendency of individuals to
attribute their own success to internal factors while
putting the blame for failures on external factors.

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Attribution Errors
• Other Perpetual Errors: Besides, there are numbers of shortcut
perceptual errors which are found when we judge others and their behavior.
The following are the some shortcut errors that may create attribute
distortion:
 Selective perception: People selectively interpret what they see on the
basis of their interests, background, experience and attitudes. For example,
A saw a person B hitting C. ‘C’ was pleading to B for not hitting him. A went
there and helped C to hit B. lately A found that C was a thief.
 Halo effect: : It is a process of judging the person entirely on the basis of a
single trait. For eg: A teacher found one of his students to have a good
English speech. He thought that the student is also very good in studies.
 Stereotyping (Generalizing/grouping): It is a process of generalizing or
grouping people on the basis of some characteristics as ethnicity,
occupation, religion etc. For example, Muslims are taken as terrorists while
Americans are taken as Ambitious people.
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Attribution Errors
• Contrast effect: It is a process in which a person is not evaluated in
isolation but he is evaluated on the basis of comparison with another
person recently encountered. For example, there were two groups for
presentation. First group gave a very bad presentation and second
group gave an average presentation. I may feel that the second group
gave a fantastic presentation on the basis of comparison.
• Projection: A person has a tendency to see his own traits to other
person. This is called projection. For example, an honest man may
see the other person to be honest even if he is not.
• Impression: It is said that first impression is the last impression. We
usually form impressions of others on the first sight, even before
knowing about his personality traits. Such impression can cause
perceptual error.

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Concept of Learning
 Learning is the process of acquiring new knowledge, skill or understanding
which brings relatively permanent in an individual’s behavior.
It is necessary in every organization to generate new concept, idea,
knowledge, strategies and technology to cope with changing environment of
the society.
Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a
result of experience.
- Stephen P. Robins
The key features of learning are:
Acquisition of knowledge, skill or understanding
Change in behavior
Relatively permanent
Generally occurs as a result of reinforced practice

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Factors Influencing Learning
Individual Motive Nature of Leaning Materials

Physiological Factors Process of Learning

Factors
Influencing
Social Factors Learning Psychological Factors

Environmental Factors Reinforcement Factors

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Factors Influencing Learning
1.Individual Motive: A motive is a person’s reason for choosing a specific behavior
from among several alternative choices. Motives are derived from needs. Human
motives are created whenever there is a physiological or psychological imbalance
and try to fulfill such imbalances.
2.Physiological Factors: These factors involve both physical condition and mental
ability of the persons. These factors are beyond the control of an individual. They
are the outcome of genes and chromosome constituted from parents. These factors
involve gender, age, health, intelligence, emotion, and so on.
3.Social Factors: Social factors encourage learning for individuals. These factors
involve social needs, incentives, reward and punishment, competition, suggestion,
cooperation etc. Social culture encourages the people to learn new knowledge
having accepted by the society and discourage the people for gaining knowledge
that are discarded by the society.
4.Environmental Factors: Natural environmental factors also affect in learning.
These factors involve light, temperature, noise, cold etc. The people feel more
difficult to learn new knowledge in high temperature because it affects on health.
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Factors Influencing Learning
5. Nature of Learning Materials: The availability of learning materials also
affects in learning process of individuals. People need learning materials on the basis
of their area of learning and level of education.
6. Process of Learning: The process of learning also affect in learning. The
process of learning involves full time or part time learning, continuous learning or
break at the mid. In research it is found that full time learning is more effective than
part time learning. It is because in full time learning, people can give more time and
concentration in learning.
7. Psychological Factors: Psychological factors of human beings also affect in
learning process. These factors involve interest, mood, level of perception, need to
learn, ability, and so on. For example, when people have self-interest in learning, they
devote more time and effort in learning process.
8. Reinforcement Factors: Reinforcement is concerned with encouraging
repetition of learning behavior that gives positive outcome. Positive reinforcement is
the outcome of application of positive consequence following a desirable behavior.
Similarly, negative reinforcement is the outcome of negative consequence which needs
to withdraw.
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Steps
• There are four steps in learning as follows:
• Stimulus: It is any object or language which draws attention of people.
There should be a clear stimulus to the learner for learning to take place.
• Response: Response is the act, which the learner has to perform. The
learner should be allowed and encouraged to practice the response.
• Motivation or drive: It involves interest or positive and attitude to
learn. If the individual does not want to learn, he is unlikely to learn even
through he possess adequate capacity to learn and understand what is
being taught.
• Reward or incentive: For proper learning, a certain incentive for
motivation is essential. It is the incentive that satisfies a motive of the
learner. Reward may be monetary or non-monetary. For eg: praise is the
incentive which satisfies the motive of social approval.

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Components of Learning
Learning consists of a relatively permanent change in knowledge or
behaviors that result from practice or experience. There are different
components of learning described as follows:
• Change: Change is the most important component that can either be
positive or negative. Favorable and unfavorable behavior may be learned
during learning process.
• Relatively permanent: Learning is relatively permanent change in
behavior
• Experience is necessary: Certain experience in a similar field is
necessary for proper learning. Experience may be acquired directly
through practice or observation or indirectly as through reading.
• Reinforcement is required: Learning must be supported by proper
reinforcement that can be in the form of positive, negative, punishment or
extinction.
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Significance/Importance of
Learning
• 1. Change behavior: Learning is concerned with a permanent change in behavior
due to experience and practices. It brings some modification in the behavior and
once learned, an individual is capable of retaining it for at least a certain period of
time.
• 2. Human Resource Development: Learning is an important means of human
resource development. It involves training, practice and experience. It facilitates to
develop skills and potential of employees. Training in organization focuses
employees for learning new concept, knowledge, efficiency and strategies
• 3. Understand Human behavior: Learning helps to understand and predict human
behavior at work. It develops technical, human relation, as well as conceptual skills
of managers. They can understand and solve technical problems faced by the
subordinates while doing jobs.
• 4. Manage Workforce Diversity: Learning helps managers to work and manage
workforce diversity. The development of education system, technology, and liberal
social system contribute to develop workforce diversity in many modern
organizations.

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Significance/Importance of
Learning
5. Technological Adaptation: The development of human creativity and innovation
contribute to develop new technology in various areas of knowledge. It is the reason
that competitors can introduce new concept, knowledge and strategy in market.
6. Reduce Resistance to Change: Change in organizational performance is
essential to cope with changing environment of the society. It is the reason that
managers need to introduce new change in every functional area of organization.
However, employees resist the change due to lack of knowledge about outcome of
change.
7. Increase Employee Performance: Learning is an important means of developing
employees' performance. It helps to develop knowledge, skills, attitudes, values,
personality, and loyalty of employees. They do assigned job according to best of
their efficiency.
8. Total Quality Management (TQM): TQM is concerned with continuous
improvement of quality of products and service on the basis of changing need of
customers. Learning helps to maintain total quality management in every
functional department of the organization.
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Principles of Learning
1. Principle of Reinforcement: Reinforcement is concerned with encouraging
repetition of learning behavior that gives positive outcome. When a response is
followed by a desirable consequence, it is positive reinforcement. Similarly, when a
response is followed by the withdrawal of an undesirable consequence, it is negative
reinforcement.
2. Principle of Punishment: The concept of reward and punishment initiate
learning among the people. When people have feeling of reward for good learning
then it encourages them to learn new concept, idea, knowledge and experience.
Similarly, when there is the provision of punishment for not involving in learning it
compels them to focus on learning.
3. Principle of Generalization: Generalization is concerned with getting
knowledge of new concept, process, or technology and practicing that new innovation
with subordinates. It is also concerned with publication of new knowledge and
experienced innovated in newspapers and magazines for the knowledge of public.
4. Principle of Discrimination: The principle of discrimination between learning
and other individuals encourage learning. When managers make differences between
learning employees and idle employees, it provides impact in their learning pattern.
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Principles of Learning
5. Principle of Motivation: Motivation is human psychological aspect and it
also affects in learning process. When management encourages the employees for
learning they involve in generation of new concept, idea, knowledge and skills.
6. Principle of Repetition: Continuous practice makes a person perfect in
sector of knowledge. At the beginning stage of learning, individuals feel difficult to
accomplish new task perfectly. But when they practice the task for many times they
become perfect to accomplish that task.
7. Principle of Active Involvement: The active involvement in subject matter
of learning also affects in learning trend. When people give full of physical and
mental concentration in learning process, they can able to understand the basic
concept of subject matter and procedures of completing it.
8. Principle of Learning Curve: Human psychologists in their research it is
found that human beings have learning curve. Therefore, age factor affects in
learning. At the young age people can learn in increasing trend as they have
creative brain and mental skills. Similarly, the increasing age of people tends to
decrease in learning curve.
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Learning Theories/ Models of
Learning

Classical Conditioning Cognitive Theory

Learning
Theories
Operant Conditioning Social Learning Theory

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Classical Conditioning(S-R)
Model
• This model attributes learning to association between stimulus
and response. His experiment is also known as Stimulus-
Response Theory (S-R Theory).
• Developed by a famed Nobel prize winning Russian psychologist
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936).
• Helpful in understanding how individuals learn to respond to
conditional stimulus when it is tied with unconditional stimulus.
• We have all learned to respond in specific ways to a variety of
words and symbols. Classical conditioning states that an event
repeated several times results into desired response.
• Originally, experiment was conducted on a dog.

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Classical Conditioning(S-R)
Model
• Pavlov attempted to associate the hungry dog’s salivation and a ringing
bell.
• In this experiment Pavlov associated three elements consisting of a
ringing bell (conditional stimulus), meat (unconditional stimulus) and
dog's salivation (unconditional response).
• At the beginning stage, Pavlov just started to ring the bell and no meat
was given to dog. Here dog has no salivation at the ringing bell. It means
dog does not provide any response to a ringing bell.
• At the second stage, Pavlov maintained link between ringing a bell and
giving meat to the same dog. He continued this experiment for a week.
After a week it was found that the dog started to salivate merely, when he
heard the ringing bell even though meat was not provided.
• In this experiment it was found that dog had learned to response a
ringing bell through salivation by expecting meat.
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The experiment process(with dog)

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Classical Conditioning(S-R)
Model
The outcome of this experiment is also applicable in
organizational performance.
In organizational performance, people can learn more from this
model.
For example, manager develops a rule for all the employees to
arrive office at 10 am. Here, all the employees will arrive in
office at 10 am. by considering that manager will be in office at
10 am. In this example, manager's arrival in office is conditional
stimulus, 10 am. is unconditional stimulus , and employees
arrival in office at 10 am. is unconditional response.
However, this theory has many limitations because it considered
only three factors.
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Limitations
• Human beings are more complex than dogs.
• Behavioral environment in organizations is also
complex.
• It is passive process.
• Decision making process is complex in nature. Thus,
simple conditioning cannot always work.

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Operant Conditioning (R-S)
• Propounded by American Psychologist B.F. Skinner
(1904-1990).
• This model/theory deals with Response- Stimulus (R-S)
connection.
• This theory is also known as Reinforcement Theory.
• It states that behavior is a function of its consequences.
• It is a type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.
• Operant conditioning is a process by which a response
become more or less likely to occur, depending on its
consequences. 60
Operant Conditioning (R-S)
Operant conditioning is the term derived from the
word operate. When our behavior operates in the
outside world, it produces some kind of effort for us
and these efforts determine whether we continue to
engage in that behavior.
It involves reinforcement for desired behavior as a
central process in learning.
If the consequences are rewarding, the response will
be repeated and will grow in strength.
Management can use this concept to influence the
behavior of employees by manipulating its reward
system. 61
Operant Conditioning (R-S)
• Skinner developed a special apparatus known as
skinner's box.
• The box has a grid floor, a system of light or sound
produced at the time of delivery of a pellet of food, in
the food cup, on the pressing of lever.
• Skinner placed a hungry rat in the box.
• In this experiment, pressure on the bar in a certain
way, by the rat could result in the production of a click
and emergence of a food pellet.
• The rat was rewarded for each proper pressing of the
lever. 62
Skinner Box Reward Vs Punishment

Reward = more Punishment =

likely less likely to
repeat
behavior will behaviors
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repeat
Operant conditioning(R-S)
Model
Response
Stimulus

People
Only if they get Performa
perform
reward nce based
better (for increased reward
performance)

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How to apply this theory in
Organizations?
• Behavior can be controlled through reward and
punishment.
• Reinforcement is a stimulus that follows a
behavior and increases the likelihood that the
desired behavior will be repeated.
• Punishment is a stimulus that follows a behavior
and decreases the likelihood that the undesired
behavior will be repeated.
• Reinforcement is given only when the correct
response is made. 65
Classical Conditioning Theory Vs Operant
Conditioning Theory
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Theory Theory
A change in stimulus elicits Stimulus serves as a cue for
a particular response. a person to emit the
response.
The strength and frequency The strength and frequency
of classical conditioned of operant conditioned
behavior are determined behaviors are determined
mainly by the frequency of mainly by the
eliciting stimulus. consequences.
The stimulus serving as The reward is presented
reward is present every only if the organism gives 66
Cognitive Theory (S-S) Model
• Propounded by Edward C. Tolman.
• Cognition refers to an individual ideas, thought's,
knowledge, interpretations, understanding or views
about himself, and his environment.
• This theory assumes that people learn from own
experience and the surrounding environment and
by the use of higher level mental process out of it.
• Learning is purely an outcome of the thinking
process and the act of knowing an item of
information that provides cues (S) to respond to the
expected goal (S). 67
Cognitive Model(S-S) Model
(Contd.)
• Cognitive learning is very significant in organizational behavior for
changing attitude of individuals.
• In organizational functions this theory has great impact on human
relation movement.
• In organization, training programs are organized to maintain link
between cognitive cues such as instruction, supervision etc. and
achievement of individual expectations such as intrinsic and extrinsic
reward.
• Tolman trained a rat in a maze in order to obtain food.
• It was observed that rats developed expectations at every choice in the
maize.
• Thus, they learned to expect that certain cognitive cues related to
choice point could ultimately lead to food.
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Procedure
• In this study 3 groups of rats had to find their way around a
complex maze. At the end of the maze there was a food box.
Some groups of rats got to eat the food. Some did not, and
for some rats the food was only available after 10 days.
• Group 1: Rewarded
• Day 1 – 17: Every time they got to end, given food (i.e. reinforced)
• Group 2: Delayed Reward
• Day 1 – 10: Every time they got to end, taken out.
• Day 11 – 17: Every time they got to end, given food (i.e. reinforced)
• Group 3: No reward
• Day 1 – 17: Every time they got to end, taken out.
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Steps in Cognitive Process
• First, people draw on their experiences and use past learning
as a basis for their behavior. These experiences represent
cognitions or knowledge.
• Second, people make choices about their behavior.
• Third, people recognize the consequences of their choices.
• Finally, people evaluate those consequences and add them to
prior learning, which affect future choices.

• NOTE: This model believes that people seek alternatives,

analyze pros and cons, choose the best alternative; and which
ultimately brings relatively permanent change in ones behavior.
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Social Learning Theory/Model
• Social learning theory is extension of operant conditioning
• This theory was proposed by Albert Bandura.
• The basic concept of this theory is that human beings learn
by merely observing or imitating the behaviors of others.
• Bandura believed that much of our learning comes from
watching models like parents, teachers, peers, motion
picture and television performance.
• This theory explains the effect of the combination of
cognitive, behavioral and environmental forces of learning.

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Social Learning Theory/Model
• It is practiced in organizations by observing various cultural, and
social practices.
• In industrial organizations leader must display a role model so that
subordinates copy the style of functioning.
• Bandura criticized the behavioristic approach of learning by arguing
that the experiments conducted in animals cannot be generalized to
human beings.
• For example: A girl is more likely to imitate the behavior of a female
teacher than the behaviors of a male teacher. Children who
observed peers successfully solve more problems than children who
observed adults successfully solve problems. A person imitates the
behavior of a successful instead of a less successful peer.

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Social Learning Theory/Model
The following process determine the extent of influence that a model may have:
1. Attention Process: It is the beginning stage of social learning. In this stage
individuals need to give more care while observing others. For individuals in order to
observe and learn, they must be able to hold attention to the model. For example,
when supervisor is demonstrating procedures of accomplishment of task,
subordinates need to observe process full of attention.
2. Retention Process: It is the stage of acquiring knowledge by observing others. In
this stage individuals able to know the basic concept of subject matter presented. For
example when supervisor is demonstrated procedures of accomplishment of task,
subordinates get knowledge of all the procedures of accomplish of task by observing
supervisor.
3.Reproduction Process: This stage is concerned with self practicing the new
knowledge gained through observing others. It is essential to gain practical
knowledge for accomplishment of task by completing necessary procedures. For
example, subordinates able know the procedures for completion of task from
supervisor, but when they involve in practice the same they become perfect to
accomplish the task.
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4. Reinforcement Process: Reinforcement is concerned with encouraging repetition
Behavior Modification(OB Mod)
• OB Mod is a sophisticated tool that is frequently employed to
improve the organizational effectiveness through modifying
critical performance behavior of people.
• It is regarded as an extension of B. F. Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning (R-S model) as it emphasizes on the use of positive
reinforcement such as pay increase, promotion and rewards to
get desired behaviors.
• OB Mod is basically built around the use of rewards for
observable behavior.
• It is a technique to modify or eliminate undesirable behavior
and replace it with behavior that is more compatible with goal
attainment.
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Behavior Modification(OB Mod)
• Behavior modification is a programme where managers
identify performance-related employee behavior and
then implement an intervention strategy to strengthen
desirable behavior and weaken undesirable behavior.
-Stephen P. Robbins
• Behavior modification plays major role for proper
management of changes by modifying behavior of all
the members of the organization.

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 Behavioral Modification Main
Focus
• Improving employee productivity,
• Reducing absenteeism and lateness,
• Reducing accident rates,
• Improving employee discipline,
• Developing training and development programs.
• Improving industrial relations

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Steps in Applying the OB Mod
Process
1. Identification of Critical behavior: The primary stage of behavior
modification process is to identify critical behavior that has a major influence
on organizational performance. The manager must determine what behavior
is desirable or undesirable for organizational performance.
2. Measurement of behaviors. This step requires the manager to establish
some baselines which allows the manager to determine his success in
changing the subordinates' behavior. It is concerned with the collection of
performance data, before, during and after introduction of behavior
modification program .
3. Functional Analysis of behavior: This step is concerned with identifying
recurring patterns of behavior that needs to be modification. This may
require insight and evaluation of individual differences in behavior. In this
process it is necessary to develop a record of positive reinforcement which
helps to simplify intervention process. Functional analysis is carried out
using ABC analysis.
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Steps in Applying the OB Mod
Process
4. Development of Intervention Strategy: For the
successful implementation of behavior modification, it is
necessary to develop a strategy for changing the behavior,
implement the strategy, and measure the frequency of the
resulting behavior. A record is to be maintained to know how
often the problem behavior is repeated.
5. Evaluating Performance Improvement: The purpose of
evaluation of strategies of behavior modification is to
determine their effectiveness. This would demonstrate whether
the undesirable behaviors are substituted by desirable
behaviors or not. This would also show whether the employees’
behavior has changed permanently or not.
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Techniques of Behavior Modification
1. Positive Reinforcement: This refers to associating a behavior with a
favorable stimulus. A good example of this is when teachers reward their
students for getting a good grade with stickers.
2.Negative Reinforcement: This is the reverse of positive
reinforcement, where a behavior is associated with the elimination of a
negative stimulus. A child that shows temper because he doesn't want to
eat vegetables and his vegetables taken away would be a good example.
3. Punishment: Punishment is designed to weaken behaviors by pairing
an unpleasant stimulus to a behavior. Receiving a detention for bad
behavior is a good example of a punishment.
4. Extinction: This tactic focuses on disregarding certain staff actions.
Manager can modify a behavior of subordinates through ignoring the act.
By ignoring the behavior he will often reduce its tendency for appearing
again.
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END OF CHAPTER II

Thank You
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