MAJOR EXTRA &

INTRACELLULAR
ELECTROLYTES.
ELECTROLYTES

 Substance when dissolved in solution separates into ions & is able to carry an
electrical current
 Cation - positively charged electrolyte e.g. Ca++
 Anion - negatively charged electrolyte e.g. Cl
 No of Cations must equal to no of Anions for homeostasis to exist in each
fluid compartment
 ELECTROLYTES IN BODY FLUID COMPARTMENTS:
 Intracellular: K, Mg, P
 Extracellular: Na, Cl, HCO3
The term ‘extracellular fluid’ includes both interstitial and vascular fluids.

 These three compartments are separated from each other by membranes that are
permeable to water and many organic and inorganic solutes.

 They are nearly impermeable to macromolecules such as proteins and are selectively
permeable to certain ions such as Na +, K+, Mg2+
 Functions of Electrolytes:

 Maintain electrolytic balance, including acid-base balance and osmotic equilibrium in

various body fluid.

 To facilitate specific metabolic functions by supplying the specific ion to the body fluids
associated with the concerning cell or organ.

 To regulate the total amount of water in body fluids.

 Our heart, muscles and nerve cells use electrolytes to maintain voltage across their cell
membranes and to carry electrical impulses to other cells.

 A muscle contraction needs calcium (Ca++), sodium (Na+), and potassium (K+) to be
present.

Deficiency and excess of electrolyte level lead to either weak muscles, or muscles that contract
too severely
 Electrolytic Imbalance and its
causes:
 Body have capacity to adjust slight variation in concentration of electrolytes in fluid
compartments. Mainly electrolytic level is kept constant by our kidneys and other hormones.

 Whenever there is a change in concentration of ions in any compartment, water will migrate
across the cell membrane to re-establish osmotic equilibrium. If body is unable to adjust the
concentration of fluid electrolytes then externally “electrolytic replacement therapy” is used.

 Body electrolytic levels tend to alter when water levels in the body changes- when our level
of hydration goes up or down
 Several other causes include:

Kidney disease
Vomiting or prolong periods
Poor diet
severe dehydration
Diarrhoea
Congestive heart failure
Edema (fluid get accumulated in intestinal space between cell due to low osmotic pressure)
Acid-Base imbalance
 Symptoms of electrolytic
Imbalance:
 The symptoms will depend on which electrolyte is out of balance, and whether that level is
too high or too low.

 An altered level of magnesium, sodium, potassium, or calcium may produce one or more
of the following symptoms:

Irregular heart beat

Weakness Bone disorder
Blood pressure change
Confusion Seizures
Nervous system disorder
Convulsion Muscle spasm
 -Location: Extracellular compartment as salt Na+
 -Normal level- 136- 142 mEq/L
1. Sodium
 Amount present in body: 1.8 g/Kg;
 Recommended daily Requirement: Approx. 3-5 g.
 Functions:
 Absorbed & excreted by cells ( maintain charge balance between the body fluids)
 Along with Cl, maintain osmotic balance of all body fluids
 In kidney, maintain blood urine volume level.
 Hyponatremia- low level of sodium in body. Due to extreme urine loss ( in diabetic insipidus), kidney
damage, diarrhea, vomiting, excessive Sweating.
 Symptoms- headache, muscle weakness, respiratory depression.
 Hypernatremia- high level of sodium in body, due to dehydration, high sodium intake.
 Symptoms- intense trust, fatigue.
 Treatments- diuretics, cardiotonic drug, low salt diet.
Major Food Source: Table salt, baking soda, animal food and some
vegetables.
Absorption From GIT and Fate in Body (Metabolism): Completely absorbed,
excreted in sweat and urine, kidney regulates sodium contents of the body,
hormone aldosterone increases reabsorption in renal tubules.

Principle Physiological/ Metabolic Function:

Maintenance of normal hydration & osmotic pressure, acid-base balance, cell
membrane permeability, muscle contraction, carbon dioxide transport,
transmission of nerve impulses.
 2. Calcium
 Location- 1% in extracellular & 99% in bones & teeth
 Functions-
 Blood clotting
 Muscle contraction
 Release of Ach from neurons
 Bones & teeth
 Hypocalcemia- decrease calcium level in body, due to lower absorption, Vit. D deficiency,
bone cancer
 Symptoms- tetanic spasms, convulsions.
 Hypercalcemia- high calcium level in body, due to hypervitaminosis D, bone neoplastic
disease.
 Symptoms- muscle weakness, constipation, cardiac irregularities.
Amount present in body: 22 g/Kg (99% in bones, rest mainly in extracellular fluid);

Recommended daily Requirement: About 1 g.

Major Food Source: Milk and milk products, eggs, green vegetables and some fishes

Absorption From GIT and Fate in Body (Metabolism):

Poorly absorbed (20-40%), variable absorption depend upon body requirements and affected by
several factors c.f. increased in vit. D, lactose, acidity; decrease by fat, oxlate, low dietary
phosphorous intake; excreted in faeces, parathyroid hormone controls blood Ca++ and phosphate
level and mobilization in bones.

Principle Physiological/ Metabolic Function: Hardening of bones and teeth; coagulation of

blood, muscle contraction, cell membrane permeability.
 3. Chloride
 Location- It is majorly found in all body fluid, nearly 66% of ion content in plasma is chloride ion.
 Normal level- about 50 mEq/ Kg
 Functions
 Absorbed & excreted by cells ( maintain charge balance between body fluids)
 Along with sodium, maintain osmotic balance of all body fluids
 Take part in formation of gastric acid.
 Hypochloremia- decrease level of chloride level in body, due to metabolic acidosis seen in
diabetic mellitus & renal failure, lack of reabsorption from kidney, excessive vomiting- loss of
gastric acid ( HCl)
 Symptoms- alkalosis, respiratory depression, muscle spasm
 Hyperchloremia- increase chloride level in body due to excess loss of bicarbonate ions,
dehydration,
CHF
Amount present in body: 50 mEq/Kg;

Recommended daily Requirement: 5-10 g as NaCl

Major Food Source: Common table salt, Animal food

Absorption from GIT and Fate in Body (Metabolism): Completely

absorbed, eliminated from blood by glomerular filtration and possibly
reabsorbed by the kidney tubules

Principle Physiological/ Metabolic Function: Maintenance of proper

hydration, osmotic pressure, normal electrolyte balance, acid-base balance,
Gastric HCl
 4. Potassium
 Location- It is majorly found in intracellular fluid ( PO4)
 Normal level- 3.8- 5.0 mEq/L
 Functions
 Contraction of muscles, especially cardiac muscle
 Maintain osmotic balance
 Transmission of nerve impulses
 Hypokalemia- decrease potassium level in body due to lower absorption,
malnutrition, diarrhea, more urine loss, heart disease.
 Hyperkalemia- increase potassium ion level in body due to kidney
damage, dehydration, cardia disease, CNS depression.
 Symptoms- bradycardia, mental confusion, muscle weakness.
Amount present in body: 12 g/Kg;

Recommended daily Requirement: 800 mg

Major Food Source: Milk and milk products, oatmeal, whole grains, legumes, nuts, egg yolk,
meat especially in liver and kidney.

Absorption From GIT and Fate in Body (Metabolism): Easily absorbed by intestine, excretion
is mainly through urine via kidney (unlike calcium) only small amount are excreted in faces.

Principle Physiological/ Metabolic Function: like calcium, it is predominant constituent of

bones and teeth; building block of several important substance including those used by the
cell for energy (ATP), cell membranes, DNA & RNA, secondary messengers, modulation of
enzyme activity, biological buffer etc.
 5. Magnesium
 Location- It is majorly found in intracellular fluid, about 54% in bones & about
45% in ICF
 Functions( Mg2+)
 To activate enzymes which are involved in Protein metabolism
 Neuronal transmission
 Myocardial function
 Hypomagnesemia- decrease magnesium ion level in body due to lower absorption,
malnutrition, diarrhea, chronic alcoholism
 Symptoms- muscle weakness, confusion, nausea, cardiac arrhythmia
 Hypermagnesemia- increase magnesium ion level in body due to Addison's
disease, acute diabetic acidosis, renal failure
 Symptoms- hypotension, cardiac arrest.
 Other ions- sulphate, bicarbonate, phosphate etc.
Amount present in body: 0.5 g/Kg;
Recommended daily Requirement: Approx. 350 mg.

Major Food Source: Green vegetables, legumes, whole grain, nuts, beans, meat, milk.
Absorption From GIT and Fate in Body (Metabolism): Not readily absorbed from GIT,
absorption retarded by alkaline media, unabsorbed Mg2+ is excreted through urine, bile and
intestinal secretion.

Principle Physiological/ Metabolic Function: Essential component of some enzyme involving

phosphate metabolism, constituent of bones and teeth; essential for protein synthesis, smooth
functioning of neuromuscular function.
 PHOSPHATE (PO4 3-)
Amount present in body: 12 g/Kg;

Recommended daily Requirement: 800 mg

Major Food Source: Milk and milk products, oatmeal, whole grains, legumes, nuts, egg yolk,
meat especially in liver and kidney.

Absorption From GIT and Fate in Body (Metabolism): Easily absorbed by intestine,
excretion is mainly through urine via kidney (unlike calcium) only small amount are excreted
in faces.

Principle Physiological/ Metabolic Function: like calcium, it is predominant constituent of

bones and teeth; building block of several important substance including those used by the cell
for energy (ATP), cell membranes, DNA & RNA, secondary messengers, modulation of
enzyme activity, biological buffer etc.
Deficiency:
Hypophosphatemia may be associated with vitamin D deficiency, hyperparathyroidism and
prolong use of aluminium hydroxide gel antacids. It may leads to rare osteomalacia and
cardiac arrhythmia.

Excessive Presence:
Hyperphosphatemia may be associated with hypervitaminsois D, renal failure,
hypoparathyroidism, it may lead to formation of kidney stone with possible kidney damage.
 ELECTROLYTE REPLACEMENT THERAPY
 It is also called as electrolyte replenisher. Due to serious symptoms of the loss of
electrolytes, it is essential to maintain the normal level by external supply of
electrolytes, this therapy is called as electrolyte replacement therapy.
 There are two types of electrolyte solutions are used in replacement therapy-
 I) Electrolyte solution for rapid initial replacement- solutions contains
electrolyte with concentration resemble with the electrolyte concentration found in
extracellular fluids.
 II) Electrolyte solution for subsequent replacement- lower concentration of
electrolyte in solution.
 1. Sodium replacement-
 The depletion of sodium cause various forms of hyponatremias. A patient who
suffers severe symptoms cause by hyponatremia should receive either 3% or 0.9%
sodium chloride solution, until severe symptoms resolve
 The main objective of replacement to raise the serum sodium concentration to 120
mEq/L. there are various sodium chloride preparations are available.
 1. Sodium chloride:

Formula: NaCl Molecular weight- 58.44

Standards : Sodium chloride not less than 99.0% and not more than 100.5% of NaCl, calculated with
reference to the dried substance.
Method of Preparation: In laboratory it is prepared from common salt in water by passing hydrochloric
acid gas. The crystals are precipitated out.
 Industrially it is prepared by 1) by evaporating purified saline (sea water) deposits & further purification. 2)
and
by purifying rock salt.
 It can also be prepared in laboratory in small scale by the acid-base reaction. In which strong acid (HCl)
reacts
with strong base ( NaOH) & finally it gives sodium chloride.
Properties:
Physical properties: it is colorless crystals or white, crystalline powder.
 It is freely soluble in water & slightly more soluble in boiling water, practically insoluble in ethanol.

Chemical properties:

 Identifications: It gives reactions characteristics of sodium and chloride.
 Test of purity: It has tested for acidity and alkalinity, Ba, Ca and Mg, Fe and heavy
metals, bromide, iodide, sulphate and loss on drying.
 Assay: The 0.1 g of substance is dissolved in 50ml of water in a glass stoppered
flask. To it, 50ml of 0.1 N silver nitrate solution, 3ml of nitric acid, 5ml of
nitrobenzene & 2ml of ferric ammonium sulphate solution are added. Now the
solution is shaken well and is then titrated with 0.1 N ammonium thiocyanate
solution until the water becomes reddish- yellow.
 Each ml of 0.1 N AgNO3 = 0.005844 g of NaCl.
 Storage: It is stored in tightly closed container in dry place as it absorb moisture.
 Uses: 1. it can be used as electrolyte replenisher, as it is isotonic solution.
 2. In combination with other electrolyte & dextrose, it is used as dialysis solution in
renal failure.
 3. It is used as a saline diuretic in the form of enteric coated tablet.
Sodium chloride preparations:
 1. sodium chloride injection I.P ( normal saline)
It contains 0.9% sodium chloride without any antimicrobial agent (PH 4.5- 7.0)
 2. Sodium chloride hypertonic injection I.P-
It contains 1.6% w/v sodium chloride (PH 5- 7.5)
 3. Compound sodium chloride injection ( ringer solution)
It contain following ingredients:
Sodium chloride- 0.869 g
Potassium chloride- 0.030 g
Calcium chloride- 0.048 g
Water for injection q. s.
100ml
 4. Bacteriostatic sodium
chloride injection USP.
It is sterile solution of sodium
chloride (0.9% w/v) in water
for injection containing
suitable
antimicrobial agent. It is used
 6. sodium chloride tablet I.P

It contain 95.0 to 105 % w/v of sodium chloride and is available in strength of 180,
300 & 500 mg of sodium chloride. It is used as an electrolyte replenisher.
 7. Sodium chloride and mannitol injection.

It is sterile solution of sodium chloride and mannitol in water for injection. It is

used as a diuretic agent.
 2. Potassium chloride
Formula: KCl Molecular weight- 74.55

Standard: potassium chloride contains not less 99.0% and not more than 100.5 % of
KCl, calculated with reference to the dried substance.
Preparation:
1. It is prepared from natural mineral, carnallite (KCl, MgCl2.6H2O). The raw
mineral is ground and then treated with hot water. The less soluble KCl
precipitate out. The process is repeated till all the KCl is recovered from liquid.
2. On laboratory scale, it is prepared by action of HCl on potassium carbonate
or bicarbonate.
K2CO3 + 2HCl 2KCl + H2O + CO2
KHCO3 + HCl KCl + H2O + CO2
3. It can also be prepared in the laboratory in small scales by reacting
potassium hydroxide (KOH) with hydrochloric acid (HCl).
KOH + HCl KCl + H2O
Properties:
It is colorless crystalline, or white crystalline powder; odorless. It has a saline taste. It
melts
at 772 C. the 10% aqueous solution is neutral to litmus.
It is freely soluble in water; practically insoluble in ethanol and ether.

Uses:
 It is used in prevention and treatment of potassium depletion and hypokalemia
and diuretic-induced hypokalemia.
 Potassium chloride is sometimes used as an excipient in pharmaceutical
formulations.
 It is used in diabetic ketoacidosis.
 It is used in hypertension, potassium supplementation results in reduction of both
systolic and diastolic blood pressure.
 Preparations of Potassium chloride:

1. Potassium chloride and Dextrose Injection:

Potassium chloride and dextrose, intravenous infusion, is a sterile solution
of potassium chloride and either anhydrous glucose, in water for Injections.
2. Potassium chloride, sodium chloride and dextrose Injection:
Potassium chloride, sodium chloride and dextrose Injection intravenous
infusion.
3. Bumetanide and slow potassium tablets:
This preparation is official in BP 2007. It contains bumetanide and potassium
chloride. They are formulated so that the potassium chloride is released over a period
of several hours.
4. Sterile potassium chloride concentrate:
It is sterile solution of potassium chloride in water for Injections.
 3. Calcium gluconate
Formula: C12H22CaO14. H2O Molecular weight:
448.40
Structure: calcium gluconate is calcium D-gluconate monohydrate.
Physical properties:
 White crystals, granules or powder, stable in air, does not lose its

( C12H22O14Ca. H2O) water of crystallization on drying.

 Neutral to litmus paper.

Chemical properties:
 When treated with dil. HCl, it is decomposed into gluconic acid
and calcium chloride.
Method of Preparation:
 It is prepared by boiling a solution of gluconic acid with
Calcium carbonate.
 Product is filtered and dried.
 Assay:
 Principles: Complexometric titration.
 -0.5 g sample is dissolved in warm water, cool and add 5 ml of 0.05 M MgSO4
and 10 ml of strong ammonia solution.
 -Titrant: 0.05 M Disodium EDTA
 -Indicator: Mordant Black II mixture.
 - End point: until deep blue color develops.
 -From the volume of 0.05 M disodium EDTA required, subtract the volume of the
MgSO4 solution added for actual reading.
 - Factor: 1 ml 0.05 M disodium EDTA= 0.02242 g of Calcium gluconate.
 Uses: It is used in management of hypocalcemia and calcium deficiency state.
 In insect bite: calcium gluconate 10 % solution, is given intravenously as an
alternative to the use of conventional muscle relaxant, for the management of
pain and muscle spasm associated with insect bite.
 In severe acute hypocalcemia.
 Preparations of calcium gluconate:
 1. Calcium gluconate injection:

Calcium gluconate injection is a sterile solution of calcium gluconate in water for

Injection. Not more than 5 % of the calcium gluconate may be replaced with a
suitable calcium salt as stabilizing agent.
 2. Calcium gluconate tablets:

Usual strengths: 325 mg; 500 mg; 650 mg; 1 g

 3. Effervescence calcium gluconate tablets:
 Oral rehydration salt (ORS)
 Oral rehydration salts are dry, homogenously mixed powders containing Dextrose, sodium
chloride, potassium chloride and either sodium bicarbonate or sodium citrate for use in oral
rehydration therapy after being dissolved in the requisite amount of water.
- It is combination of oral electrolytes.
 Composition:
 - contains essential electrolytes those are important to maintain the normal function of the
body.
 - Also contains sufficient amount of water.
 - The concentration of electrolytes may be varying depending on the loss of particular
electrolytes.
 Uses:
 In the heavy loss of water (dehydration) and loss of electrolytes.
 Condition like severe vomiting, diarrhea and prolonged fever.
 Oral Rehydration Salt Powder IP 2007:

As the stability of ORS containing sodium bicarbonate under tropical condition is very
poor, formulations containing sodium bicarbonate are less suitable; sodium bicarbonate may
be packaged separately in such cases to improve storage stability. ORS may contain suitable
flavoring agent and, where necessary, suitable flow agent, in the minimum quantity,
required to achieve a satisfactory product. But may not contain artificial sweetening agent
like mono or polysaccharide, saccharin or aspartate.
Usual strength of ORS
Formula (gm/L) ORS- A ORS- Citrate
Sodium chloride 1.25 3.5
Potassium chloride 1.5 1.5
Sodium citrate 2.9 2.9
Anhydrous Dextrose 2.9 2.9
Dextrose 29.7 22.0
monohydrate
 ORS- A , commonly used in India for treatment of non-choleraic diarrhea &
 ORS- Citrate, recommended by Diarrheal Disease Control Programmed of the
World
Health Organization (WHO).
 Our body fluids are having a balanced quantity of acids and bases. It becomes essential to
maintain normal PH range because the biochemical reaction which take place in the
living system are very sensitive to even small changes in acidity or basicity.
 Generally acidic metabolites are formed in higher quantity then basic metabolites
because CO2, protein and amino acids contributes to acidic metabolites generation.
These are then neutralize by bicarbonate ions.
 PH of blood remains constant around 7.3- 7.4 because of the mechanism of controlling
PH by buffering system. An optimum PH is required by every system of body to perform
various physiological functions and reactions.
 Most of metabolic reaction occurs in narrow range of PH. The required PH of plasma is
maintained by the three regulatory mechanism.
 The buffer system may consist of weak acid and the salt of that acids. Buffer system of
body does not allow rapid and drastic changes in the PH of a body fluid by converting
strong acids & bases into weak acids & bases. Buffers are thus able to remove the
excess Hydrogen from the body fluids but not from the body.
 1. Buffer system/ buffering mechanism

a) Carbonic acid & bicarbonate ion (HCO3 & H2CO3)

- found in plasma & kidney
b) Phosphate buffer system (HPO4/ H2PO4)
-Found in cell & kidney
c) Protein buffer system
- On dissociation of some amino acid which form OH & H+ ion which take part in
buffering of body fluid.
2. Respiratory mechanism
On stimulation of respiratory center, the rate of breathing is altered, remove CO2 in the
body
fluid leads to change in PH.
3. Renal mechanism
Absorption of certain ion & elimination of other through urine by kidney control the acid-
base balance of kidney.
1. Carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system
Chief Buffer system of Blood.
 It occurs in plasma and kidney.
 It is considered to be an important regulation of blood PH. If there occurs an excess
of Hydrogen, the bicarbonate (HCO3) ion acts as a weak base and accepts hydrogen
to form carbonic acid. The latter dissociate further to yield carbon dioxide and
water molecule. The carbonic acid formed later dissociates to yield carbon dioxide
and water.

 While if there occurs shortage of hydrogen, the carbonic acid (another component
of
buffer system) ionize to release more hydrogen ion & maintain the PH.
 In lungs, for example, oxygen reacts with the protonated deoxyhemoglobin,
releasing protons. Theses protons combine with bicarbonate, forming carbonic acids,
which then dissociates to yield carbon dioxide and water. Then the carbon dioxide
gets exhaled out.
 Normal metabolism gives rise to more acids than bases, but the blood is made more
acidic. Therefore the body needs more bicarbonate salt than it needs carbonic acid.
Hence at physiological PH 7.4, the plasma is having about 24 mEq/L of
bicarbonate in comparison to about 1.2 mEq/L of carbonic acid. (ratio of 20: 1)
2. Phosphate buffer system
It is also able to maintain physiological PH at 7.4. as the phosphate concentration is
highest in intra-cellular fluid, the phosphate buffer system is considered to be an
important regulator of PH. This system occurs in the cells and kidneys. The system
consist of monohydrogen phosphate/ dihydrogen phosphate (HPO4/H2PO4). It is
known to act in the same manner as the carbonic acid- bicarbonate buffer system
acts.
 If there occurs an excess of hydrogen, the monohydrogen phosphate ion acts as
the weak base by accepting the proton.

 While the dihydrogen phosphate ion can act as the weak acid and is able to
neutralize
the alkaline condition, as
 For example, in kidney, NaH2PO4 gets formed if excess hydrogen ion in the
kidney tubules combines with Na2HPO4. the sodium ion released in this reaction
forms sodium bicarbonate by accepting bicarbonate ion.
 The NaHCO3 then enters the blood. The kidney are also able to synthesize new
HCO3 and reabsorb bicarbonate ion that have been filtered so this important
buffer does not get lost in the urine.
 The hydrogen ion that replaces sodium ion become part of the NaH2PO4 that goes
into the urine. Thus, kidney are able to maintain pH by the acidification of urine. At
physiological pH, the HPO4/H2PO4 ratio in the intracellular fluid is about 4:1.
while in the kidney it is nearly 1:100 because the urine pH is in acidic (4.5- 4.8)
range.
 3. Protein (Hemoglobin) buffers system
 It is considered to be the most abundant buffer in body cells and plasma. Proteins are composed of amino acids
that are having at least one carboxyl group (COOH) and at least one amino (NH2) group. When there occurs
an excess of hydrogen ions, the amino group act as a base and accepts the proton.

 While the free carboxyl group can release protons so as to neutralize an alkaline
condition.

Thus, protein is able to serve both the function of acid and base components of a buffer system because of
its amphoteric nature.
 2. Respiratory mechanism:
 The body's second best defense against acid-base disturbance is control of
extracellular fluid CO2 concentration by the lungs.
 When respiration get decreased, the accumulation of CO combines with
2
water present in blood to form carbonic acid (H2CO3) which further dissociates
to give Hydrogen ion and give rise to acidosis.
Similarly in case of over breathing, excess of CO2 excreted by lung, which give rise
to alkalosis.
3. Renal mechanism:
Kidney perform a major task to remove the excess of acid present in the body that is why PH of urine
usually found to be acidic. Kidney is able to generate ammonia (NH3) which neutralize the acidic
product of protein metabolism, these products are then excreted out from the body in urine. Fixed
acids like sulphuric, phosphoric and hydrochloric acids are generally excreted out by kidney while
unstable carbonic acid is removed mainly by respiratory mechanism.
 Stability of buffers (From acids, bases & buffer chapter)
 It is required to make up and treat buffer solutions with care. A typical shelf life for
commercial technical buffers is 2 years unopened and 3- 6 months open. However, this is not
valid for alkaline buffers (PH of buffer is 10 or higher). Alkaline solution will change their
PH when they come into contact with carbon dioxide in air. The typical shelf-life for alkaline
buffers is 1 month open.
 So to maintain the stability of buffer solutions, following points must be taken care of;
 Check any expiration date on commercial buffer solution before using it.
 During making a buffer solution, put a date on label and also an expiration date.
 Keep the buffer solutions in closed plastic container or within stoppered flask.
 Store the buffers at room temperature, 15 to 25C.
 For alkaline buffers, it is recommended to put the bottles in the refrigerator.
 The temperature of buffers is important because it is a function of its PH. At lower
temperature, the evaporation of the water in the buffers is slower than a higher temperature,
which help to maintain the concentration of the buffer constant for a longer period of time.
 Storage: store the buffers;
 At room temperature, 15 to 30 C or
 Refrigerated, 2 to 8 C
 Store the prepared buffer solutions in chemically resistant, tight container such
as type I glassbottles. Use these solutions within 3 months.