MODULE-4

OUTLINE
 Quantity of water:
 Sources of water
 Per capita demand
 Drinking water standards
 Public Water Supply System:
 Necessity and Basic lay out
 Conventional water treatment process:
 Screening
 Plain Sedimentation
 Sedimentation aided with Coagulation
 Filtration
 Disinfection (working principles only).
What is Water Resources Engineering?
• Water Resource Engineering is a branch of civil engineering focused
on the planning, development, management, and sustainable use of
water resources. It involves designing systems and structures like
dams, canals, pipelines, and irrigation systems to supply water for
human needs, agriculture, and industry while ensuring environmental
balance and flood control.
Sources of Water
SURFACE SOURCES
RIVERS:

Definition: Rivers are natural flowing streams of water, usually

freshwater, that flow toward an ocean, sea, lake, or another river.

Sources: Rivers originate from glaciers, springs, or precipitation and

flow along natural channels.

Uses: Provide water for drinking, irrigation, and hydropower generation.

Rivers are also essential for navigation and fisheries.

Example: The Ganges River in India supports agriculture, drinking

water supply, and cultural activities.
PONDS:
Definition: Ponds are small, shallow bodies of still water, usually created
naturally or artificially.

Formation: Formed by rainwater accumulation, groundwater seepage,

or small-scale man-made interventions.

Uses: Used for local irrigation, fisheries, and livestock watering. In rural
areas, they often serve as community water sources.

Example: Village ponds in India are common for local agricultural use.
LAKES:

Definition: Lakes are large, still water bodies surrounded by land,

typically formed naturally or through human intervention.

Sources: Can be fed by rivers, rainwater, or underground springs.

Uses: Provide water for drinking, irrigation, tourism, and fishing. Large
lakes act as natural storage systems.

Example: Chilika Lake in Odisha serves as a brackish water ecosystem

and supports biodiversity.
IMPOUNDED RESERVOIRS:
Definition: Impounded reservoirs are artificial lakes created by
constructing dams across rivers to store water.

Construction: Built by blocking the flow of a river to create a water

storage system.

Uses: Provide regulated water for irrigation, urban water supply,

hydroelectric power generation, and flood control.

Example: The Bhakra Nangal Reservoir in India stores water for multi-
purpose use.
Comparison of Surface Sources
Feature Rivers Ponds Lakes Impounded
Reservoirs
Size Large Small Medium to Large Large
Formation Natural Natural/Artificial Natural/Artificial Artificial
Water Flow Dynamic Static (Still) Static (Still) Controlled (Still)
(Flowing)
Primary Use Multi-purpose Local Use Multi-purpose Regulated Supply
Examples in Ganges River Village Ponds Chilika Lake Bhakra Reservoir
India
Significance of Surface Water Sources
• They are essential for fulfilling the water demands of agriculture,
industry, and households.
• Provide habitats for diverse ecosystems.
• Serve as sources of recreation and tourism.
• Contribute to renewable energy production through hydropower.
UNDERGROUND SOURCES
SPRINGS
Definition: Springs are natural outflows of groundwater to the Earth's surface
when the water table intersects the ground.
Formation: Occurs due to natural pressure or gravity in areas with permeable
rock layers above impermeable ones.
Types of Springs:
1.Perennial Springs: Flow continuously throughout the year.
2.Intermittent Springs: Flow only during certain seasons when the water table
is high.
3.Thermal Springs: Emerge with warm water due to geothermal activity.
Uses:
Drinking water in hilly regions.
Irrigation and hydropower in some locations.
Example: Springs in the Himalayan region supply water to local communities.
WELLS
Definition: Wells are man-made structures
dug or drilled to access groundwater from
aquifers.
Types of Wells:
Dug Wells: A dug well is a large, shallow
hole in the ground that is dug by hand or with
machinery to access groundwater. Dug wells
are a traditional and inexpensive way to
obtain water, and are commonly used in rural
areas.
• Shallow, manually excavated wells.
• Draw water from unconfined aquifers.
WELLS
Tube Wells: A tube well is a type of
water well that uses a pipe or tube to
draw water from the underground water
table.
• Deep, machine-drilled wells.
• Access water from confined aquifers.
• Require pumping mechanisms to
draw water.
WELLS
Artesian Wells: An artesian well is a well that
brings groundwater to the surface without
pumping because it is under pressure within a
body of rock and/or sediment known as an
aquifer.
• Access confined aquifers under pressure.
• Water flows to the surface naturally without
pumping.
Uses:
• Supply water for irrigation, domestic use, and
industrial processes.
Example: Tube wells are extensively used in
INFILTRATION GALLERIES
Definition: Infiltration galleries are horizontal or inclined underground tunnels
constructed to tap subsurface water from porous soil or rock formations near water
bodies.
Structure:
• Consist of perforated pipes or open channels laid in the subsurface layer.
• Collect water that seeps through the soil from rivers, lakes, or ponds.
Working:
• Water infiltrates through the surrounding soil into the gallery and is collected for
use.
Uses:
• Urban water supply systems.
• Common in areas where surface water is insufficient or unreliable.
Example: Infiltration galleries are often used near riverbanks for municipal water
supply.
Infiltration Wells:
Definition: Infiltration wells are shallow wells constructed to allow surface water to
seep into the groundwater table, enhancing groundwater recharge.
Structure:
• Typically constructed near rivers, lakes, or ponds.
• Surrounded by porous material like sand or gravel to facilitate water infiltration.
Working:
• Water from surface sources percolates through the porous material, recharging
the aquifer.
• Used as a source of water or as a groundwater recharge technique.
Uses:
• Artificial recharge of groundwater.
• Supplementing water supply in water-scarce areas.
Example: Common in drought-prone regions to recharge aquifers and support
agriculture.
What is a Jack Well?
A jack well is essentially a shallow well designed to collect and distribute
water from underground aquifers or natural water sources. It is often
used in irrigation systems, urban water supply, or drainage systems. In
water resources engineering, jack wells are strategically located and
constructed to facilitate the collection, storage, and transfer of water.
Per Capital Demand (q)
• Per capita demand (q) is the average amount of water a person needs
per day, annually, and is measured in liters per person per day
(lpcd). It includes water used for domestic, industrial, commercial,
and public purposes, as well as water lost to theft and waste.

• Thus, total yearly requirement of city can be estimated using the

above equation provided that per capita demand is already known or
assumed.
• For an average Indian city, as per recommendation of I.S. code, the
per capita demand(q) may be taken as given in table.
Important Points
• Domestic water demand = (135 to 200) Ipcd
• Industrial water demand = 50 Ipcd
• Institutional and commercial water demand = 20 Ipcd
• Demand for public utility = 10 Ipcd
• Total water demand = (270 to 335) Ipcd

Total quantity of water required by the town per day shall be 270-335
Liters/Capita/Day multiplied with the total population of Liter/Day.
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
• Water quality is crucial for human consumption, agricultural use,
industrial processes, and ecological health. In India, water quality
standards are established by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
through the Indian Standard IS 10500:2012, which outlines the
criteria for drinking water quality. These standards define the
permissible limits for various water quality parameters.
• Here is a summary table of the water quality criteria as per Indian
Standards (IS 10500:2012) for drinking water:
 Permissible Limit (in
Water Quality
Unit Desirable Limit the absence of Remarks
Parameter
alternative source)
pH value determines
pH - 6.5 - 8.5 5.0 - 9.5 the acidity or alkalinity
of water.
High turbidity can
NTU (Nephelometric affect disinfection
Turbidity <5 10
Turbidity Units) efficiency and aesthetic
quality.
TDS influences water
Total Dissolved Solids taste, and high TDS
mg/L < 500 500 - 2000
(TDS) can be harmful to
health.
Hardness above
permissible limits can
Hardness (as CaCO₃) mg/L 100 - 300 300 - 600
cause scaling in pipes
and appliances.
High chlorides can
affect taste and may
Chlorides mg/L < 250 250 - 1000
indicate seawater
contamination.
 Permissible Limit (in
Water Quality
Unit Desirable Limit the absence of Remarks
Parameter
alternative source)
High concentrations
Sulfates mg/L < 200 200 - 400 can cause
gastrointestinal issues.
High levels affect taste,
Iron (Fe) mg/L < 0.3 0.3 - 1.0 appearance, and may
cause staining.
Excessive manganese
Manganese (Mn) mg/L < 0.1 0.1 - 0.3 can cause taste issues
and staining.
High nitrate levels may
lead to
Nitrate (NO₃) mg/L < 45 45
methemoglobinemia in
infants.
Excess fluoride can
Fluoride (F) mg/L < 1.0 1.0 - 1.5 cause dental and
skeletal fluorosis.
Arsenic is carcinogenic
µg/L (micrograms per
Arsenic (As) < 10 10 and should be avoided
liter)
at all costs.
 Permissible Limit (in
Water Quality
Unit Desirable Limit the absence of Remarks
Parameter
alternative source)
Lead is toxic,
especially for children,
Lead (Pb) µg/L < 0.01 0.01 and can affect
neurological
development.
Mercury is highly toxic
Mercury (Hg) µg/L < 0.001 0.001 and accumulates in the
body.
Cadmium exposure is
Cadmium (Cd) µg/L < 0.003 0.003 toxic, especially for
kidneys.
Absence of coliform
Bacterial Quality MPN/100mL (Most
0 10 (per 100 mL) bacteria is essential for
(Coliforms) Probable Number)
potable water.
Presence indicates
Total Coliforms MPN/100mL 0 10 contamination, making
water unsafe.
 Permissible Limit (in
Water Quality
Unit Desirable Limit the absence of Remarks
Parameter
alternative source)
No detectable E. coli
bacteria should be
E. Coli MPN/100mL 0 0
present in drinking
water.
High alkalinity can
Alkalinity mg/L 200 - 600 600 affect taste and lead to
scaling.
High DO is required
Dissolved Oxygen
mg/L ≥5 N/A for maintaining aquatic
(DO)
life in water bodies.
Copper is essential in
trace amounts but can
Copper (Cu) mg/L < 0.05 1.5
be harmful at higher
concentrations.
Zinc in high
concentrations may
Zinc (Zn) mg/L < 5.0 15
cause taste issues but is
not toxic at low levels.
Waterborne Diseases
1.Cholera: Caused by Vibrio cholerae, characterized by severe diarrhea
and dehydration.
2.Typhoid Fever: Caused by Salmonella typhi, leading to high fever,
abdominal pain, and fatigue.
3.Dysentery: Inflammation of the intestines caused by Shigella or
Entamoeba histolytica, resulting in diarrhea with blood.
4.Hepatitis A: A viral infection that affects the liver, causing fever,
jaundice, and fatigue.
5.Giardiasis: A parasitic infection caused by Giardia lamblia, resulting
in abdominal cramps, bloating, and diarrhea.
PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
• A public water supply system is a network of infrastructure designed
to deliver potable (safe for drinking) water to the population in urban
and rural areas.
NECESSITY OF PUBLIC WATER SYSTEMS
 Health and Hygiene:
• Access to safe drinking water is essential to prevent waterborne
diseases such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery, and diarrhea, which
remain prevalent in several parts of India due to lack of proper water
treatment.
• Proper water systems reduce the risk of contamination from untreated
water, contributing to better public health and well-being.
 Urbanization and Population Growth:
• With over 1.4 billion people, India’s population continues to grow,
which in turn increases the demand for water. Public water supply
systems are needed to ensure that both urban and rural populations
receive sufficient, safe water.
• Large urban areas like Mumbai, Delhi, and Kolkata face immense
challenges in providing clean drinking water to a large population.
Hence, public systems are crucial to meet these needs.
 Agricultural and Industrial Needs:
• Agriculture and industry in India rely on water for irrigation,
production, and manufacturing. A well-managed public water system
is essential not only for drinking but also for these sectors, especially
during dry periods when water sources deplete.
Water Scarcity Management:
 Water Scarcity Management:
• India faces regional water scarcity, with states like Rajasthan and
Gujarat often experiencing drought conditions. A public water supply
system helps to efficiently distribute water to areas facing shortages
and ensures equitable access.
 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):
• Access to clean water and sanitation is a critical goal under the United
Nations’ SDGs. India has committed to providing universal access to
clean drinking water, and public water systems play a central role in
achieving this objective.
BASIC LAYOUT OF PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
A typical public water supply system consists of several key components:
1. Water Source:
• Surface Water Sources: Rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and ponds are
common sources in India. Major rivers like the Ganga, Yamuna,
Godavari, and Krishna supply water to many cities.
• Groundwater Sources: Bore wells, wells, and tube wells are
extensively used, especially in rural areas. Groundwater serves as a
backup during times of drought or water scarcity.
• Desalination (Emerging Trend): In coastal areas, especially in cities
like Chennai, desalination plants are becoming a viable option for
supplementing freshwater supplies.
2. Water Intake Structures:
• Water is collected from the sources through intake works like weirs, intake
wells, or pumping stations. These structures prevent debris and sediments from
entering the system.
3. Water Treatment Plants (WTP):
Coagulation and Flocculation: Chemicals like alum are added to the water to form
clumps (flocs) of impurities.
Sedimentation: The water is allowed to stand so that the larger particles settle at
the bottom.
Filtration: The water is passed through filters to remove smaller particles and
microorganisms.
Disinfection: Chlorine or ozone is added to kill pathogens and make the water safe
for consumption.
Fluoridation: In some regions, fluoride is added to the water to prevent dental
problems.
4. Water Storage:
Clear Water Reservoirs (CWR): After treatment, water is stored in large reservoirs
or tanks, which act as buffers to meet varying demand throughout the day.
Service Reservoirs: These are smaller storage tanks strategically located to
distribute water to different areas based on demand.
5. Water Distribution Network:
The treated water is transmitted through a network of pipelines. These pipelines
carry water to different areas in the city or rural areas. The network includes:
Primary Transmission Mains: These large pipes carry water from the treatment
plants to different zones.
Secondary Distribution Mains: Smaller pipes that further distribute water to
neighborhoods and localities.
Tertiary Mains: Local pipes that supply water to individual houses, shops, or
industries.The system also includes pump stations that help in maintaining the
pressure in the pipes, ensuring a continuous flow of water.
6. Water Supply Fixtures:Public Standpipes (for rural areas): In many
6. Water Supply Fixtures:
• Public Standpipes (for rural areas): In many rural areas, water is
made available at community standpipes.
• Household Taps: In urban areas, water is supplied directly to
households via taps.
7. Water Metering and Billing:
• Water consumption is often measured using water meters installed at
the entry points of individual households or commercial
establishments.
• Billing systems track the amount of water used, and consumers are
charged accordingly.
8. Maintenance and Monitoring:
• Regular inspection and maintenance of the water system are essential
for ensuring smooth operations. Leakages, contamination, and
mechanical failures are dealt with promptly.
• Water quality monitoring and testing at various stages of the supply
chain (source, treatment, and distribution) are carried out to ensure
compliance with safety standards.
Challenges in Public Water Systems in India:
Water Contamination: Despite treatment efforts, many rural areas still face
challenges in accessing clean water due to contamination from agricultural
runoff, industrial waste, and improper waste disposal.
Inequitable Distribution: Uneven distribution of water across regions,
especially during droughts or low rainfall periods, often leads to shortages in
certain areas.
Aging Infrastructure: In many urban areas, the water distribution network is
old and suffers from leakage, wastage, and inefficiency.
Funding and Management Issues: A lack of adequate funding, poor
governance, and inefficient management practices hinder the development and
maintenance of water supply systems.
Climate Change: Altered weather patterns and reduced water availability due
to climate change further complicate the provision of reliable water supplies.
CONVENTIONAL WATER TREATMENT PROCESS:
• The conventional water treatment process is a sequence of steps
designed to remove physical, chemical, and biological impurities from
raw water to make it safe for drinking and other purposes.
• The steps typically include screening, plain sedimentation,
sedimentation aided with coagulation, filtration, and disinfection.
• Each step plays a crucial role in improving the quality of water by
removing different types of contaminants.
• Below is an explanation of the working principles of each of these
processes:
SCREENING:
Working Principle:
• Screening is the first step in the water treatment process, primarily aimed at
removing large debris and floating materials like leaves, twigs, plastics, and
other solid waste from raw water.
• This is typically achieved using mechanical screens or bar racks.
• The screen is designed with openings of a specific size, allowing water to pass
through while trapping larger particles.
• The screened water is then directed to the next stage in the treatment process.
• This step ensures that the subsequent treatment processes are not hindered by
large objects.
Key Points:
• Prevents clogging of pumps and treatment equipment.
• Protects the downstream processes from large debris.
• Reduces the load on the next treatment stages, improving efficiency.
Plain Sedimentation:
Working Principle:
• Plain sedimentation is a physical process where raw water is allowed to
stand undisturbed in large tanks or basins for a period of time, allowing the
heavier particles (such as sand, silt, and clay) to settle down due to gravity.
• During this stage, suspended solids in the water settle at the bottom of the
sedimentation tank, forming a sludge. The treated water, which is now
clearer, is then collected from the top and moved to the next stage.
Key Points:
• Based on the principle of gravity.
• Removes large particles, but does not significantly improve the microbial
quality of the water.
• Works best for water with low turbidity (cloudiness).
Sedimentation Aided with Coagulation:
Working Principle:
• In this process, coagulation and flocculation chemicals (such as alum or ferric
chloride) are added to the water to help smaller particles that remain suspended
after plain sedimentation to clump together (coagulate).
• These coagulated particles, now called "flocs," are larger and heavier, allowing
them to settle more easily during the sedimentation stage.
• Coagulation is typically followed by flocculation, where gentle stirring is used to
promote the formation of larger flocs.
• This enhanced sedimentation is more effective at removing fine particles,
colloidal matter, and organic impurities from the water.
Key Points:
•Coagulants destabilize the charge on suspended particles, causing them to
aggregate.
•Enhanced sedimentation removes finer particles that plain sedimentation cannot.
•Important for treating water with high turbidity or organic content.
Filtration:
Working Principle:
• Filtration is the process where the water is passed through various layers of media,
typically consisting of sand, gravel, and sometimes charcoal, to remove smaller
particles, bacteria, and residual flocs that may still remain after sedimentation.
• The filtration media work by trapping particles as the water flows through, allowing
only clean, clear water to pass through.
• There are several types of filters, including slow sand filters, rapid gravity filters, and
pressure filters.
• In large-scale plants, rapid gravity filtration is most commonly used.
Key Points:
• Removes fine suspended solids, organic matter, and microorganisms.
• Can include multiple layers of filtration media (sand, gravel, anthracite coal) for
different levels of particle removal.
• May require periodic backwashing to remove accumulated contaminants from the
filter media.
Disinfection:
Working Principle:
• Disinfection is the final step in the water treatment process, aimed at killing or inactivating
any remaining pathogens (bacteria, viruses, protozoa) that may cause waterborne diseases.
• The most commonly used disinfectants are chlorine, ozone, and ultraviolet (UV) light.
• Chlorine is added to the treated water, and it works by attacking the cell membranes and
enzymes of microorganisms, effectively killing them.
• Ozone and UV light also destroy pathogens through oxidative reactions and exposure to
ultraviolet radiation, respectively.
Key Points:
• Essential for ensuring microbiological safety of the water.
• Chlorine is the most widely used disinfectant due to its effectiveness and residual
protection (it continues to disinfect the water as it moves through the distribution system).
• Ozone and UV provide disinfection without leaving harmful residues in the water.
• Disinfection effectiveness depends on factors like contact time, water temperature, and
concentration of disinfectant.