 Lesson 2

Defining Networks with the OSI

Model
 Objectives
Skill/Concept Exam Objective Objective
Number
Understanding OSI Basics Understand the Open Systems 3.1
Interconnection (OSI) model
Defining the Communications Understand switches 2.1
Subnetwork
Defining the Upper OSI Layers Understand the Open Systems 3.1
Interconnection (OSI) model
Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI)
 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference
model is used to define how data communication
occurs on computer networks.
 Thismodel is divided into layers, each of which
provides services to the layers above and below.
 These layers are associated with protocols and
devices.
 OSI Model Layers
 Layer 1 – Physical layer
 Layer
2 – Data link layer (DLL)
(1/2)
 Layer 3 – Network layer
 Layer 4 – Transport layer
 Layer 5 – Session layer
 Layer 6 – Presentation layer
 Layer 7 – Application layer
OSI Model Layers

(2/2)
 Layer 1 – Physical Layer
 This is the physical and electrical medium for data
transfer.
 Itincludes but is not limited to cables, jacks, patch
panels, punch blocks, hubs, and MAUs.
 Concepts related to the physical layer include
topologies, analog versus digital/encoding, bit
synchronization, baseband versus broadband,
multiplexing, and serial (5-volt logic) data transfer.
 The unit of measurement used on this layer is bits.
 Communications
Subnetwork
 The communications subnetwork is the guts of OSI
model transmissions, consisting of layers 1 through
3.
 Regardlessof what type of data transmission occurs
in a computer network, the communication
subnetwork will be employed.
 Networking Standards
 Networking standards such as 100BASE-T are based on the
physical layer.
 The 100 in 100BASE-T stands for 100 Mbps
 The BASE means baseband
 The T stands for twisted-pair cabling
 Baseband refers to the fact that all computers on the LAN
share the same channel or frequency to transmit data, in
this case 100 MHz.
 Conversely,broadband means that there are multiple
channels that can be utilized by the communications
 Layer 2 – Data Link Layer (DLL)
 This layer establishes, maintains, and decides how transfer
is accomplished over the physical layer.
 Devices that exist on the DLL are network interface cards
and bridges.
 Thislayer also ensures error-free transmission over the
physical layer under LAN transmissions.
 Itdoes so through physical addresses (the hexadecimal
address that is burned into the ROM of the NIC), otherwise
known as the MAC address (to be discussed more later in
this lesson).
 Media Access Control Address (1/2)
 In
an Ethernet network, every network adapter must
have a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address.
 TheMAC address is a unique identifier assigned to
network adapters by the manufacturer.
 This
address is six octets in length and is written in
hexadecimal.
Media Access Control Address (2/2)
 Layer 2 Switches
A layer 2 switch is the most common type of switch
used on a LAN.
(1/2)
 These switches are hardware based and use the MAC
address of each host computer’s network adapter
when deciding where to direct frames of data.
 Every
port on the switch is mapped to the specific
MAC address of the computer that physically
connects to it.
 Layer 2 Switches
 Security is a concern with layer 2 switches.
 Switches
have memory that is set aside to store the
(2/2)
MAC address to port translation table, known as the
MAC table or Content Addressable Memory (CAM)
table.
 Thistable can be compromised with a MAC Flood
attack.
 Virtual LAN (VLAN)
 Layer 2 switching can also allow for a virtual LAN (VLAN) to be
implemented.
 A VLAN is implemented to segment the network, reduce collisions,
organize the network, boost performance, and hopefully, increase
security.
 The most common standard associated with VLANs is IEEE 802.1Q,
which modifies Ethernet frames by “tagging” them with the
appropriate VLAN information, based on which VLAN the Ethernet
frame should be directed to.
 VLANs are used to restrict access to network resources, but this can be
bypassed through the use of VLAN hopping.
 Layer 3 – Network Layer
 Thislayer is dedicated to routing and switching information
to different networks, LANs, or internetworks.
 Devicesthat exist on the network layer are routers and IP
switches.
 Here,we are getting into the logical addressing of hosts.
Instead of physical addresses, the addressing system of the
computer is stored in the operating system—for example, IP
addresses.
 The unit of measurement used on this layer is packets.
 Layer 3 Switches
 Switches also reside on the network layer.
A layer 3 switch differs from a layer 2 switch in that it
determines paths for data using logical addressing (IP
addresses) instead of physical addressing (MAC addresses).
 Layer3 switches are similar to routers—it’s how a network
engineer implements the switch that makes it different.
 Layer3 switches forward packets, whereas layer 2 switches
forward frames.
 Layer 3 switches are usually managed switches.
 Layer 4 – Transport Layer
 This
layer ensures error-free transmission between
hosts through logical addressing.
(1/2)
 Therefore, it manages the transmission of messages
through layers 1 through 3.
 Theprotocols that are categorized by this layer
break up messages, send them through the subnet,
and ensure correct reassembly at the receiving end,
making sure there are no duplicates or lost
messages.
 Layer 4 – Transport Layer
 Thislayer contains both connection-oriented and
connectionless systems, which will be covered later
(2/2)
in the book.
 Inbound and outbound ports are controlled by this
layer. When you think “ports,” think the transport
layer.
 Theunit of measurement used on this layer is
sometimes referred to as segments or messages. All
layers above this one use the terms “data” and
“messages.”
 TCP and UDP
 Twocommon TCP/IP protocols that are utilized on this
layer include the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),
which is a connection-oriented protocol, and the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP), which is connectionless.
 Anexample of an application that uses TCP is a web
browser, and an example of an application that uses
UDP is streaming media.
Connection Oriented Communications
 Connection-oriented (also known as CO mode)
communications require that both devices or computers
involved in the communication establish an end-to-end
logical connection before data can be sent between the two.
 These connection-oriented systems are often considered
reliable network services.
 If an individual packet is not delivered in a timely manner, it
is re-sent; this can be done because the sending computer
established the connection at the beginning of the session
and knows where to resend the packet.
 Connectionless
 Communications
In connectionless communications (CL mode), no end-to-end
connection is necessary before data is sent.
 Every packet that is sent has the destination address located
in its header.
 This
is sufficient to move independent packets, such as in
the previously mentioned streaming media.
 Butif a packet is lost, it cannot be re-sent, because the
sending computer never established a logical connection
and doesn’t know which logical connection to use to send
the failed packet.
 Ports
 Layer4 also takes care of the ports that a computer
uses for data transmission.
(1/4)
 Ports act as logical communications endpoints for
computers.
 There
are a total of 65,536 ports, numbering
between 0 and 65,535.
 Theyare defined by the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority or IANA and divided into categories.
Ports
Port Range Category Type Description
0–1023 Well-Known This range defines commonly used
Ports protocols; for example, FTP utilizes port 21

(2/4)
to accept client connections.
1024– Registered Ports These ports are used by vendors for
49,151 proprietary applications. These must be
registered with IANA. For example,
Microsoft registered port 3389 is used with
the Remote Desktop Protocol.
49,152– Dynamic and These ports can be used by applications,
65,535 Private Ports but cannot be registered by vendors.
 Ports
 Itis important to understand the difference between
inbound and outbound ports:
(3/4)
 Inbound ports

 Outbound ports
Ports Port Number Associated Full Name
Protocol
21 FTP File Transfer Protocol
22 SSH Secure Shell

(4/4) 23
25
Telnet
SMTP
Terminal Network
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
53 DNS Domain Name System
80 HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol
88 Kerberos Kerberos
110 POP3 Post Office Protocol Version 3
119 NNTP Network News Transfer Protocol
137–139 NetBIOS NetBIOS Name, Datagram, and Session Services,
respectively
143 IMAP Internet Access Message Protocol
161 SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol
389 LDAP Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
443 HTTPS Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (uses TLS or SSL)
445 SMB Server Message Block
1701 L2TP Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol
1723 PPTP Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol
 Layer 5 – Session Layer
 Thislayer governs the establishment, termination,
and synchronization of sessions within the OS over
the network and between hosts—for example, when
you log on and log off.
 This
is the layer that controls the name and address
database for the OS or NOS. NetBIOS (Network Basic
Input Output System) works on this layer.
NetStat Command
 Layer 6 – Presentation
Layer
 This layer translates the data format from sender to
receiver in the various OSes that may be used.
 Conceptsinclude code conversion, data
compression, and file encryption.
 Redirectorswork on this layer, such as mapped
network drives that enable a computer to access file
shares on a remote computer.
 Layer 7 – Application Layer
 This
layer is where message creation—and, therefore
packet creation—begins.
 End-user
protocols such as FTP, SMTP, Telnet, and
RAS work at this layer.
 Thislayer is not the application itself, but the
protocols that are initiated by this layer.
OSI Model Revisited

(1/2)
OSI Model Revisited
Layer Protocol Device
7. Application FTP, HTTP, POP3, SMTP Gateway
6. Presentation Compression,

(2/2)
5. Session
Encryption
Logon/Logoff
4. Transport TCP, UDP
3. Network IP, ICMP, ARP, RIP Routers
2. Data Link 802.3, 802.5 NICs, switches, bridges, WAPs
1. Physical 100BASE-T, 1000BASE- Hubs, patch panels, RJ-45 jacks
X
 TCP Model
 The TCP/IP (or TCP) model is similar to the OSI model.
 Itis often used by software manufacturers who are
(1/2)
not as concerned with how information is sent over
physical media, or how the data link is actually
made.
 This model is composed of only four layers.
 TCP Model
 Layer 1: Data link layer (also simply known as the
link layer)
(2/2)
 Layer 2: Network layer (also known as the Internet
layer)
 Layer 3: Transport layer
 Layer 4: Application layer

 TheOSI physical layer is skipped altogether, and the

application layer comprises the OSI application,
 Summary
 The Open Systems Interconnection reference model
(OSI model) is a reference model used to define how
(1/5)
data communications occur on computer networks. It
is divided into layers that provide services to the
layers above and below. These layers are associated
with protocols and devices.
 The OSI model was created as a set of seven layers,
or levels, each of which houses different protocols
within one of several protocol suites, the most
common of which is TCP/IP.
 Summary
 TheOSI model categorizes how TCP/IP transactions
occur. It is invaluable when it comes to installing,
(2/5)
configuring, maintaining, and, especially,
troubleshooting networks.
 Inan Ethernet network, every network adapter must
have a unique media access control (MAC) address.
The MAC address is a unique identifier assigned to
network adapters by the manufacturer. This address
is 6 octets in length and is written in hexadecimal.
 Summary
 Switcheshave memory that is set aside to store the
MAC address to a port translation table, known as
(3/5)
the MAC table or Content Addressable Memory table
(or CAM table).
 The Ethernet frame is larger than the IP packet. That
is because the IP packet is encapsulated into the
frame.
 Summary
 Twocommon TCP/IP protocols that are utilized on this
layer include the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),
(4/5)
which is a connection-oriented protocol, and the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP), which is connectionless.
 Layer4 also takes care of the ports that a computer
uses for the transmission of data. Ports act as logical
communications endpoints for computers. There are
65,536 ports altogether, numbered between 0 and
65,535.
 Summary
 Layer 7 is where protocols like HTTP, FTP, and POP3
reside. The Application layer is not the applications
(5/5)
themselves (Internet Explorer or Outlook), but the
network services and protocols that the applications
initiate, such as HTTP or POP3.
 The TCP/IP (or TCP) model is similar to the OSI model.
It is often used by software manufacturers who are
not as concerned with how information is sent over
physical media, or how the data link is actually
made. It is composed of four layers only.
 THE END