Research

Methodology & Design

Introduction to Types of
Research Methodology

Research methodology refers to the

methods and techniques used to
portray the research effectively.
It concerns the systematic design of a
study to guarantee results that meet
the aims and objectives of the study.
The researcher is primarily
responsible for presenting the idea
and explaining different types of
research methodology approaches
used.
 Key Takeaways

To ensure that the data gathered is valuable and reliable, researchers employ a
variety of research methods.

Employing research methods has many merits, including assisting the researcher in
developing the study field and conducting the research more efficiently. Both
contribute to the researcher’s knowledge of the subject matter.
 Quantitative Research

Purpose: theory-testing to establish facts, show causal explanations and relationship

between variables, allow prediction, and strive for generalizability.

It relies on quantifying a certain amount or quantity of a specific phenomenon. It focuses

on gathering and analyzing numerical data and can be used to find averages and
patterns or to predict outcomes.

It draws a conclusion using tables, facts, and graphs.

 Pros
• It allows for larger sample sizes, enables thorough analysis of the
findings, and helps draw broader conclusions about your target
audience.
• Since quantitative research uses surveys, experiments, and real-

Quantit time data collection, there are minimal delays in gathering the data
under study. Therefore, compared to other research methodologies,
the researcher analyzes the information under study quite rapidly.

ative
• Due to anonymity, researchers frequently use quantitative data
while examining sensitive topics. Consequently, this setting lowers
the possibility of producing inaccurate data.

Resear Cons
ch
• Since the researcher may be unable to conduct the research in the
subjects’ natural environments, it may appear artificial and
regulated. Participants’ responses are claimed and may not reflect
their actual real-life behavior.
• Because survey responses are limited, you cannot go beyond that
in delving into greater depth about the behaviors, attitudes, and
motives as you can with qualitative research.
• There is a financial element to consider with quantitative research
because it can be costly.
Qualitative Research
It refers to the non-numerical elements in the research.

Qualitative research comes to the rescue when the researcher cannot grasp the information or data in terms
of numbers. Though not as reliable as Quantitative research, qualitative research helps to form a better
summary of theories in the data.

Seeks to answer difficult “why” questions: Explanatory and descriptive

Often used when just beginning to understand a phenomenon or if a new perspective is needed. Purpose is
to develop theory (not test theory), understand the perspectives of participants, describe multiple realities
and interpretations.
 Can be performed more quickly since qualitative research
Pros use a smaller sample size than other research
methodologies.

It enables a more in-depth exploration of attitudes and behavior

because it’s more intimate and can go into specifics to comprehend

Qualitat
their thoughts and actions better to formulate or examine a hypothesis.

It allows for flexibility because the interviewer can go into the

ive
subject and probe any questions, they feel are relevant, and
they can even alter the setting.

Researc Cons
The people you select to participate in the qualitative research may
all have a particular opinion about the subject matter rather than a
group of people with different views, implying bias in the sample

h
selection.

It takes a long time to gather the data since it takes time to filter
through the elements to decide what is useful and what is not.

Some participants may be concerned about a lack of privacy,

particularly when discussing sensitive matters.
 • Objective: Combining both

Mixed- qualitative and quantitative

methods to gain a more
comprehensive understanding of a

Metho research problem.

ds
• Example: Using surveys to gather
quantitative data on student
satisfaction and conducting

Design qualitative interviews to explore

the underlying reasons for
satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
Level 1. Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: These are
comprehensive reviews that synthesize multiple studies on a specific
topic, providing a high level of evidence because they analyze and
combine data from various sources.
Level 2. Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs): RCTs are
experimental studies in which participants are randomly assigned to
different groups to test the effects of an intervention or treatment. They
are considered a strong form of evidence.
Level 3. Cohort Studies: Cohort studies follow a group of individuals
over time to examine the relationship between an exposure (e.g., a risk
factor) and an outcome. They provide valuable evidence but are not as
robust as RCTs.
Level 4. Case-Control Studies: Case-control studies compare
individuals with a specific condition (cases) to those without the
condition (controls) to identify potential risk factors. They are less
robust than cohort studies.
Level 5. Cross-Sectional Studies: Cross-sectional studies assess a
group of individuals at a single point in time. They can provide valuable
information but are often considered weaker evidence due to their
limited ability to establish causation.
6. Case Reports and Case Series: These are observational reports of
individual cases or small groups of cases. They provide the lowest level
of evidence and are typically used for generating hypotheses or
describing rare conditions.
 Quantitative
Research Design
 Quantit
ative
Design

True Quasi- Non-

Experiment experiment experime
al al ntal
 Experimental Nonexperimental
(true/Quasi)

 Manipulates  No manipulation of

Summar independent
variable
independent variable
 No randomization of
subjects

y
 Must randomize
 No control group
subjects
 Level IV, V, VI evidence
 Control group
 Seeks to explore
 Level II evidence phenomena and test
 Seeks to explain relationships and 14

cause and effect differences

Non-
experiment
al Designs
 Nonexperime
ntal Designs
Used when the researcher
wishes to:
• Construct a picture of a
phenomenon
• Explore events, people, or
situations as they naturally occur
• Test associative relationships
and/or differences among
variables

16
What does
time have to
do with it?

17
I. • Three types of time
Designs determinations:
• Cross-sectional Data
accordin • Longitudinal (Cohort)

g to : Prospective or
Retrospective
time • Retrospective (case-
control)
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 A. Cross-Sectional
Data
• Snapshot at a specific moment: Cross-sectional data is
collected at a one point in time, providing a snapshot of a
population, group, or phenomenon at that moment.
• Multiple subjects or entities: It involves the collection of data
from multiple individuals, entities, or observations
simultaneously, allowing for a broad and diverse sample.
• Useful for comparisons and prevalence studies: It is often used
to compare characteristics, behaviors, or variables across
different groups or to estimate the prevalence of specific traits
or conditions within a population at a specific time.
• Commonly used in surveys: Cross-sectional data is frequently
collected through surveys, questionnaires, or censuses to
gather information on various variables.
 20

A. Cross-sectional Studies
Less time-consuming and expensive
Advanta Large amounts of data can be collected
ges at one point, making the results more
readily available

Difficult to establish an in-depth

Disadva developmental assessment of the
ntages interrelationships of the phenomena
 B. Longitudinal
Studies
• Data from the same group at different points
in time.
• Also called Cohort or repeated measures study
• Can be Prospective or Retrospective:
• Prospective : researchers select a group of
people who do not have the outcome of interest
at the start of the study and follow them into the
future to assess whether the outcome develops.
• Retrospective : researchers identify a group of
people who already have the outcome and look
backward in time to study their exposure history.
• Explore associative relationships and correlations,
or differences and comparisons, or both.
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 Prospective Longitudinal Retrospective Longitudinal
Study: Study:
Example: Examining the impact of regular Example: Medical Records Analysis of Cancer
exercise on cardiovascular health over a 10- Patients:
year period. Researchers might analyze historical data from
Researchers recruit individuals with varying levels medical records to investigate the long-term
of physical activity and no history of effects of a particular treatment or to identify
cardiovascular disease. They collect baseline data factors influencing disease outcomes. For
on their health, including factors like blood instance, researchers could retrospectively
pressure, cholesterol levels, and overall fitness. examine the medical records of cancer patients
The participants are then followed over time, with treated with a specific therapy over the past 20
regular check-ups and assessments to track any years. They could then analyze the outcomes,
changes in cardiovascular health. survival rates, and any associated complications
to gain insights into the long-term effects of the
treatment.
 23

B. Longitudinal Studies
Advantages
• Each subject is followed up separately and thereby
serves as his or her own control
• Increased depth of responses can be obtained
• Early trends in the data can be analyzed
• Assesses changes in the variables over time, and both
relationships and differences can be explored between
Disadvantages
variables
• Data collection may take a long time, increasing costs
in time, effort, and money
• Testing effects may be a threat
• Mortality is a significant threat owing to the increased
C. Retrospective
Design (Case
Control)
• Observational study that looks back in time
to examine data from the past.
• Researchers start by identifying individuals
who have the outcome of interest (cases)
and those who do not (controls). They then
collect information about the past exposures
and characteristics of both groups
• Attempt to link present events to events that
have occurred in the past

25
Example:
Retrospective
Design

• Linking smoking to lung cancer is

a good example of a retrospective
case-control design.
• Begin with a sample of subjects
with lung cancer (cases) and a
sample of subjects who did not
(controls).
• The researchers searched for
differences between the two
groups such as smoking.
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 27

Retrospective Design

Advanta less time-consuming and less expensive

ges

More susceptible to bias, particularly recall

Disadva bias, where participants may have difficulty
ntages accurately recalling past exposures.
II. Correlational
Design
 • Researchers measure and record the
Correlation values of multiple variables without
manipulating them.
al Design: • Correlational studies typically
involve statistical analysis to
determine the strength and direction
of the relationships between
Examines the
variables. Common statistical
association between
techniques include correlation
two or more variables
coefficients (e.g., Pearson's
correlation coefficient) and
regression analysis.
• Correlations can be positive,
negative, or close to zero.
29
Example: Correlational Design
 Prospective correlational (cohort design)
studies subjects over time
 Example: Observing a sample of pregnant
women some who have contracted rubella
during pregnancy and others who did not.
The occurrence of birth defects would be
the outcome variable evaluated.

(Describe why this is not a cause/effect

study?)
30
Example: Correlational Design
 Descriptive correlational design is a cross
sectional study where an associative
relationship between variables in a sample
 Example: Observing a sample of subjects
who are on home parenteral nutrition
(HPN) and determining the association of
their quality of life and the length of time
they have been on HPN.
(Describe how this is not a cause/effect
study?)
31
 • Advantages:

Correlatio • Increased flexibility investigating

complex relationships

nal • Efficient method to collect a

large amount of data
• Potential foundation for future
Design experimental studies
• A framework for exploring the
relationship between variables
that cannot be manipulated
•Disadvantages:
• Inability of manipulating variables
• Randomization is not used
• No causal-relationship
• Strength and quality of the
evidence is limited
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III. Descriptive
Design
 Descriptive Designs
•Observational Nature: involves the observation of a subject or
phenomenon as it naturally occurs within their real environment.
Researchers do not intervene or manipulate variables but instead focus on
documenting and describing what is already happening.
•Data Collection Methods: employs a variety of data collection methods,
such as surveys, interviews, content analysis, or direct observation. These
methods help researchers gather information about the characteristics,
behaviors, attitudes, or opinions of the subjects under investigation.
•Statistical Analysis: While the primary focus is on description,
descriptive research often involves some level of statistical analysis to
summarize and present the collected data. Common statistical measures
include averages, percentages, frequencies, and other descriptive statistics.
Descript
• It can be cross-sectional, longitudinal,
correlational (examine the relationships
between two or more variables or generate

ive
hypotheses to identify patterns or
associations) or case study (employs case
studies to provide in-depth, detailed

Designs
examinations of a particular individual,
group, or situation..
• Also called comparative when used to
determine differences between variables in a
sample
• Do not attempt to determine causation
• Seek to relate variables to each other- just to
describe

35
Example:
Descriptive
Designs
• Example is a study that describes
characteristics (age, marital
status, employment, educational
level) of women who are
breastfeeding 6 months after
delivery.
• Frequently used to determine if
there are any commonalities that
may lead to future experimental
studies.
36
Descripti Disadvantages
ve • Lacks the ability to establish
Designs causation.
• Findings may be limited by the
representativeness of the
sample.
• Conducting a descriptive study
may require expertise in
several research areas
37
• Large-scale descriptive studies
 38

3. Additional types of quantitative

Designs
Evaluation Research:
Methodological
designed to determine how
Research: develops,
a new program should be
validates, evaluate, and
developed and designed
produces standardized
and how well an existing
measures, tests,
Systematic program is doing and what
instruments, Reviews of
or equipment. Secondary Analysis/
Non-Experimental should be done.
Meta-analysis designs:
designs: answer
statistical analysis of the
their research question
data from independent
by summarizing available
primary studies focused on
literature using specific
the same question, which
search parameters followed
aims to generate a
by critical appraisal and
Experimental Cross-
sectional
Longitudinal (Cohort:
According
research Prospective &
to Time
Correlatio Retrospective)
Retrospective
Non-

nal (Case-control)
Descriptiv Methodologic
e al Research
Evaluation
Research
Others
Systematic Reviews of Non-
Experimental designs
Secondary Analysis/ Meta-analysis
designs
Experimental and

Quasi-
Experimental
Designs
 41

Experimental & Quasi-

Experimental Designs
Researcher
actively Test cause-and-
intervenes
Can includeto effect
bring
types about the
such as relationships
desired
Pretest-effect
Posttest,
Posttest-Only, Provide level II
Repeated and III evidence
Measures,
Factorial
 •Three criteria are needed to
Cause- infer causality:
1. The causal (independent) and

and- effect (dependent) variables must

be related to each other

Effect
2. The cause must precede the
effect
3. The relationship must not be

Relation explainable by another variable

ships
42
A. Experime
ntal
Designs
Level II Evidence
 •Three properties:
1. Randomization
True 2. Manipulation
Experimen 3. Control

tal Design  A research study using a

true experimental design is
commonly called a
randomized clinical trial
(RCT).
44
 Randomization
• Each subject in the study has an equal
chance of being assigned to the control group
or the experimental group to attain validity.
• This is done by:
Ensuring that subjects are representative of the
group from which they are chosen, by randomly
selecting them from a population.
Ensuring that the experimental and control group
subjects are similar, by randomly assigning them
to groups.
45
 Manipulation
• “Doing something” to subjects of the study.
• The independent variable is manipulated
when some subjects (experimental group)
receive the intervention and others (control
group) do not
• The researcher deliberately changes one or
more independent variables to observe the
effect on the dependent variable.
• Researchers often include checks to ensure
that the independent variable is successfully
manipulated and that any observed effects
can be attributed to the manipulation.46
 Control
Extraneous variables are variables
other than the independent
variable that could potentially
affect
Controltherefers
dependent variable.
to the
researchers’ ability to control
or eliminate other interfering
and irrelevant
It allows influencestoon
the researcher say
dependent variable
that the results are due to
manipulation of the variables
and not to chance
interferences of other 47
 • Most powerful for testing cause-
Strengths of the and-effect relationships because
Experimental of the use of control,
Design manipulation, and randomization
• Level II evidence

• May be complicated to design and

Weaknesses of the expensive to conduct
Experimental • May be difficult or impractical for
Design certain clinical settings or because of
ethical considerations
48
 Examples: True Experimental

Example: Example: Pretest- Example: Factorial

Randomized Posttest Control Design
Controlled Trial Group Design
Investigating
(RCT) the Assessing the Examining the
effectiveness of a impact of a new effects of both
new drug in teaching method on instructional
treating depression student learning by method and time of
by randomly measuring pre- day on memory
assigning existing knowledge, retention by
participants to implementing the manipulating these
 B. Quasi
experiment
al designs
Level III Evidence
Quasi Experimental Designs
Although it contains an independent variable that
is manipulated, a characteristic of a true
experiment is lacking i.e., randomization, control
Often
groupsused when random assignment is not possible due
to practical or ethical constraints and researchers have
less control over variables compared to true
experiments , yet researchers still want to investigate
Question
the effects whether the findings
of an independent are the results of
variable.
the effect of the Independent Variable or an
extraneous variable
Quasi Experimental
Design
Advantages and
Disadvantages

• Practical and more feasible,

especially in clinical settings
• Difficult to make clear
cause-and-effect statements
• Not be able to generalize
(why?)
• Level III evidence
Examples: Quasi-Experimental

Example: Non- Example: Time-

Equivalent Control Series or Pretest-
Assessing the impact of a Investigating the impact
Group Designprogram
new educational Posttest Design
of a policy change on
by comparing a group of crime rates over several
students who months by collecting data
experienced the program before and after the
Qualitative Research Design
Components of
a Qualitative
Research
report
Research Question
or Objective
• Clearly articulate the purpose of the study
and the specific questions the research
aims to address.
• Qualitative research often explores
complex phenomena or seeks to
understand experiences and perspectives.
• Unlike quantitative designs, research
questions in qualitative designs may be
dropped as relevant, modified as additional
data are gathered, or new questions may
be added as the study proceeds
 Theoretical
Framework:
Establish the theoretical foundation that informs the
study. This could involve drawing on existing theories or
conceptual frameworks to guide the research design and
provide a lens through which data will be interpreted.
 Ethnography:
• Focus: Immersion in a culture or group to
understand their social practices and
behaviors.

Researc • Example: Studying the culture of a

Phenomenology:
specific community to understand their
• traditions and social interactions.
h Focus: Exploring individuals' experiences
and perceptions of a phenomenon.
• Example: Investigating the lived
Designs experiences of cancer survivors during
Grounded Theory:
and after their treatment.
• Focus: Developing theories based on
data collected during the research
process through Iterative process of data
collection and analysis, often using
interviews and observations.
 Narrative Research:
• Objective: To explore and analyze the stories
or narratives people talk about their
experiences.
• Example: Investigating the life stories of
Researc Content
individualsAnalysis:
who have overcome significant
challenges and identifying common themes
• Objective: To systematically analyze and
h
of resilience.
interpret the content of various forms of
communication, such as text, images, or
media.
Designs • Example: Analyzing online discussions to
Case Study:
understand public perceptions of a
controversial social issue.
• Focus: In-depth exploration of a specific case
or instance.
• Data Collection: Interviews, observations,
and examination of relevant documents.
• Example: Analyzing the experiences of a
 Action Research:
• Objective: To solve a problem
collaboratively with participants,
Researc often in a practical or
organizational setting.

h • Example: Working with a group of

Critical Research:
teachers to identify and
implement strategies to improve
Designs • Objective: To critically examine
student engagement in the
power structures, social
classroom.
inequalities, and issues of social
justice.
• Example: Investigating the impact
of a government policy on
Sample
• Usually a purposive sample (not random or
convenience) or a snowball sample because
the researcher is looking for the person who
can elucidate the phenomena being studied
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria—
description of what characteristics a person
must have to be selected or excluded from
the study
• Sample size is determined when data
saturation occurs, that is, when information
being shared with the researcher becomes
repetitive
Data Collection
The only data collection instrument in qualitative
research is the investigator/interviewer which relies
heavily
The data onare
observation, interviewing,either
words or observations, tape recording
an
in the field,
interview orfocus group, or document analysis .
a description
Describes the steps from when the participant
contacted the researcher until the end of the study
Contains details about how long the researcher
spent collecting data (prolonged engagement)
Description of how the researcher decided that data
saturation had been reached
The kinds of questions that were asked (grand tour
question or semi-structured interview probes)
Data Analysis
• Is the process of systematically organizing
the field notes, interview transcripts, and
other accumulated materials until you
understand them in such a way as to
address the research questions and can
present the understanding to others.
• How raw data were handled, usually
transcripts of taped interviews (peer
debriefing, member checking)
• Common methods include thematic analysis,
content analysis, and constant comparative
analysis in grounded theory.
Reporting the
Results
• Themes are identified from
the codes and categories
and the process used to
distinguish themes is
described.
• Quotes from the participants
(thick description) are used
to support themes
 Example:
Second theme: Debate on the value of artificial
prosthetic
 Subthemes: Stepping into a New Life: 7/12 of the
participants showed the positive effect of
having the prostheses.
I.6: "‫" الطرف الصناعي اعطاني حياة جديدة‬
I.7: “ ‫“انا بركض مش بمشي على الطرف‬
 Sub theme: An Intruder on the Body: 5/12
showed the negative effect it has on their
life due to the pain and fatigue that was
Conclusions/
Discussion
• Summarization of results
• Similarities and differences with
existing literature (refer back to
the literature review)
• New findings or conceptual
conclusions
• Suggest how to use the findings in
practice or future research