ND 112

Anatomy and Physiology with

Emphasis of Human Nutrition
JOHN STEPHEN C. RAMOS, RND
Instructor
Nutrition and Dietetics Department
First Semester, School Year 2021-
2022
THE CELLULAR LEVEL OF
ORGANIZATION
Course Outline
• The Cell Membrane
• The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles
• The Nucleus and DNA Replication
• Protein Synthesis
• Cell Growth and Division
• Cellular Differentiation
• The Role of Nutrition
 Obectives
At the end of this lesson, the students will
be able to learn all about:
1. The Cell Membrane
2. The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles
3. The Nucleus and DNA Replication
4. Protein Synthesis
5. Cell growth and Division
6. Cellular Differentiation
7. The Role of Nutrition
Structure of the Cell
Cell Membrane
Functions of the Cells
• Basic unit of life.
• Protection and support.
• Movement
• Communication
• Cell metabolism and energy release.
• Inheritance
Cell Membrane
• Is the outermost component of a cell.
• Encloses the Cytoplasm and forms the
boundary between the material inside
the cell and material outside of it.
a. Extracellular substances -
substances outside the cell.
b. Intracellular substances –
substances inside the cell.
• Major molecules that made up cell
membranes are: protein and
phospholipids
• Other molecules: cholesterol,
carbohydrates, water, ions.
• The phospholipids form a double layer of
molecules which are:
1. Hydrophilic (water-loving) – polar,
phospate-containing ends
2. Hydrophobic (water-fearing) –
nonpolar, fatty acid ends
• Studies of the arrangement of molecules
in the cell membrane have given rise to a
model of its structure called the Fluid-
Mosaic Model.
The Fluid-Mosaic Model
Molecules Functions
Cholesterol Gives it added strength and
fexibility.
Protein “float” among the
phospholipid molecules and,
in some cases, may extend
from the inner to the outer
surface of the cell membrane.
Also functions as membrane
channels, carrier molecules,
receptor molecules, enzymes,
or structural support to the
membrane.
Carbohydrates May be bond to some protein,
modifying their functions.
• Membrane channels and Carrier
molecules- are involved with the
movement of substances through the cell
membrane.

• Receptor Molecules- are part of

intercellular communication system that
enables the coordination of the activities
in the cell.
Movement
through the
Cell
Membrane
• Cell membranes are selectively
permeable, allowing some substances,
but not others, to pass into or out of the
cells.
• Substances such as enzymes, glycogen,
and potassium ions are found at higher
concentrations intracellularly.
• Sodium, Calcium, and Chlorine are found
in greater concentrations extracellularly.
Molecules pass through cell
membranes in 4 ways:

1. Directly through the phospholipid

membrane.
-molecules that are soluble in lipids,
such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
steroids, pass through cell membranes
readily by dissolving in the phospholipid
bilayer.
2. Membrane Channels
- Cell membrane channels, consisting
of large protein molecules, extend from one
surface of cell membranes to the other.
3. Carrier Molecules
-large polar molecules that are not
lipid-soluble, such as glucose and amino
acids, cannot pass through cell membranes
in significant amount unless they are
transported by special carrier molecules.
- They bind to molecules.
- Each carrier molecule transports a
specific type of molecule.
4. Vesicles
- large non-lipid-soluble molecules,
small pieces of matter, and even whole cells
can be transported across cell membrans in
vesicles, which are membrane-bound sacs.
• Concentration Gradient – occurs when
the concentration of particles is higher in
one area than another.
• Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) –
energy carrying molecule found in the cell
of all living things.
Types and Characteristics of Movement Across Cell
Membranes
Type Definition Requires ATP Examples

Diffusion The tendency for No Oxygen, Carbon

solutes , such as dioxide, chloride
ions or molecules to ions, urea
move from an area
of higher
concentration to
lower concentration.
Osmosis Is the diffusion of No Water
water (a solvent)
across a selectively
permeable
membrane, such as
the cell membrane,
from a region of
higher water
concentration to
lower.
Filtration Movement of liquid No In kidneys, filtration
and substances by of everything in
pressure through a blood smaller than
partition containing proteins and blood
holes. cells.
Facilitated Diffusion Carrier mediated No Glucose in most
transport. cells.
Type Transport Requires ATP Examples
Active transport Against the Yes Sodium,
concentration potassium,
gradient by carrier calcium, hydrogen;
molecules. amino acids
Secondary Active Against the Yes Glucose, amino
Transport concentration acids
gradient by carrier
molecules; the
energy for
secondary active
transport of one
substance comes
from the
concentration
gradient of
another.
Endocytosis Movement into Yes Ingestion of
cells by vesicles particles by
phagocytosis or
receptor-mediated
endocytosis and
liquids by
pinocytosis.
• Phagocytosis- a term used for
endocytosis when particles are ingested.
• Pinocytosis (cell drinking) – is
distinguished from phagocytosis in that
much smaller vesicles are formed that
contain liquid rather than particles.
The Cytoplasm and the
Cellular Organelles
Cytoplasm
• Contains
many types of
organelles.
• Enclosed by
the cell, or
plasma, or
membrane.
Organelles
1. Nucleus
• Contains genetic
material of cell
(DNA) and the
nucleoli; site of
ribosome and
messenger RNA
synthesis.
• Often near the
center of the
cell.
• The nucleus contains loosely coiled fibers
called Chromatin consisting of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and proteins.
• The DNA molecules stores information
that allows genes to determine the
structure of proteins.
2.Nucleoli/Nucleolus
• Site of ribosomal
RNA synthesis and
ribosomal subunit
assembly.
• Located in the
Nucleus.
• Ribosomes are the
organelles where the
proteins are
produced.
3. Rough
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
• Many ribosomes
attached to rough ER;
site of protein
synthesis.
• Located in the
cytoplasm.

4. Smooth
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
• Site of lipid synthesis;
detoxification.
5. Golgi Apparatus
• Modifies Protein Structure and packages
proteins in secretory vesicles.
• Located in the cytoplasm.
6. Secretory Vesicle
• Contains materials produced in the cell;
formed by the golgi apparatus; secreted
by exocytosis.

7. Lysosome
• Contains enzymes that digests material
taken into the cell.
8. Mitochondrion
• Site of aerobic respiration and major site
of ATP synthesis.

9. Microtubule
• Supports cytoplasm; assists in cell
division and forms components of cilia
and flagella.
10. Cilia
• Move substances over
surfaces of certain cells.
• Located on cell surface
with many on each well.

11. Flagella
• Propels sperm cells
• Located on sperm cell
surface with one per
cell.
12. Microvilli
• Increase surface
area of certain
cells.
• Located in the
extensions of cell
surface with many
on each cell.
13. Cytoskeleton
• Consists of proteins that support the cell,
hold organelles in place, and enable the
cell to change shape.
• Consists of microtubules, microfilaments,
and intermediate filaments.
The Nucleus
and DNA
Replication
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
• Contains the information that directs
protein synthesis.
• Influences the structural and functional
characteristics of the entire organism.
• Whether an individual has blue eyes,
brown hair, or other inherited traits is
determined by the DNA.
What is DNA replication?
• DNA replication is the process by which
DNA makes a copy of itself during cell
division.
The DNA Replication
• The first step in DNA replication is to
‘unzip’ the double helix structure of
the DNA molecule.
• This is carried out by an enzyme called
helicase which breaks the hydrogen
bonds holding the complementary
bases of DNA together (A with T, C with
G).
• The separation of the two single strands of
DNA creates a ‘Y’ shape called a replication
‘fork’. The two separated strands will act as
templates for making the new strands of
DNA.
• One of the strands is oriented in the 3’ to 5’
direction (towards the replication fork), this
is the leading strand. The other strand is
oriented in the 5’ to 3’ direction (away from
the replication fork), this is the lagging
strand. As a result of their different
orientations, the two strands are replicated
differently.
Protein Synthesis
Protein Synthesis
• DNA directs the production of proteins in
two steps: transcription and
translation.
• Suppose a chef wants a recipe that is
found only in a reference book in the
library. Because the book cannot be
checked out, the chef makes a copy, or
transcription, of the recipe.
• Later, in the kitchen, the information
contained in the copied recipe is used to
prepare a meal. The changing of
something from one form to another (from
recipe to meal) is called translation.
• In terms of this analogy, DNA (the
reference book) contains many genes
(recipes) for making different proteins
(meals). DNA, however, is too large a
molecule to pass through the nuclear
pores to go to the ribosomes (kitchen)
where the proteins (the meal) are
prepared.
• Just as the reference book that stays in
the library, DNA remains in the nucleus.
Through transcription therefore the cell
makes a copy of the information in DNA
necessary to make a particular protein.
• The copy, which is called messenger
RNA (mRNA), travels from the nucleus to
the ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where the
information in the copy is used to
construct a protein by means of
translation.
• The ingredients necessary to synthesize a
protein are amino acids.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA)- carry the amino
acids to the ribosome.
In summary, synthesis of proteins involves:
• Transcription – making a copy of part of
the information in DNA (a gene)
• Translation – converting that copied
information into a protein.
Cell Growth
and Division
Cell Growth
• is the process by which cells accumulate
mass and increase in physical size.
• In some cells, size is proportional to DNA
content. For instance, continued DNA
replication in the absence of cell division
(called endoreplication) results in
increased cell size.
Cell Division
• Is the formation of 2 daughter cells from a
single parent.
• Each cell of the human body, except for
sex cells, contains 46 chromosomes.
• 2 X chromosomes – Female
• 1 X chromosome and 1 Y chromosome -
Male
Mitosis
• All cells in the body, except those that
give rise to sex cells, divide by mitosis.
• Involves 2 steps:
1. The genetic material within a cell is
replicated or duplicated.
2. The cell divided to form two daughter
cells with the same amount and type of
DNA as the parent cell.
• Mitosis is divided into 4 stages:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
Cellular
Differentiation
Cell Differentiation
• Process by which cells develop with
specialized structures and functions.
• The single cell formed during fertilization
divides by mitosis to form two cells, which
divides to form 4 cells, and so on.
• The cells continue to divide until there are
thousands of cells, which differentiate and
give rise to the different cell types.
The Role of Nutrition
Nutrition and Cellular
Membrane
• Fats constitute the boundaries of the cell.
• Proteins in your cell membranes are
important for many cell functions.
• Nutrients in the Food You Eat Can
Promote Healthy Cell Membranes.
Nutrition and energy production: the mitochondria

• The mitochondria is the place where your

cells produce the energy they need from
the nutrients in the food you eat.
The Role of Nutrition
• B-vitamins - to support energy production and
keep the level of offshoot free radicals at a
minimum.
• Healthy fats (like the omega-3 fatty acids) and a
good source of proteins to support healthy,
protective membranes.
• High intake of antioxidants, like the vitamin E
family compounds found in the germ of whole
grains, vitamin C found in citrus foods, and the
carotenoids from vegetables to protect against
free radical damage to your DNA, which can
cause mutations.
• A range of other phytonutrients can also
act as antioxidants and help protect your
cells and DNA from free radicals; these
include anthocyanidins from fruits like
grapes and strawberries, and catechins
found in green tea and fruits like grapes.
• Supporting healthy membranes by eating
foods that provide unsaturated fats and
avoiding those with saturated and trans-
fatty acids is one way to protect your
DNA.
• Eating organically grown foods is another
way to protect your DNA since by eating
organic, you minimize your exposure to
pesticide residues in food.
The End.
SUMMARY
The functions of the cell are:
• Basic unit of life.
• Protection and support.
• Movement
• Communication
• Cell metabolism and energy release.
• Inheritance
SUMMARY
• The cellular organelles are: Nucleus,
Nucleoli, Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum,
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi
Apparatus, Secretory Vesicle, Lysosome,
Mitochondrion, Microtubule, Cilia,
Flagella, and Microvilli.
SUMMARY
• DNA replication is the process by which DNA
makes a copy of itself during cell division.
• Synthesis of proteins involves transcription
and translation.
• Cell growth is the process by which cells
accumulate mass and increase in physical
size.
• Supporting healthy membranes by eating
foods that provide unsaturated fats and
avoiding those with saturated and trans-fatty
acids is one way to protect your DNA.
References
• Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology by
Seeley, Stephens, and Tate.
• How Healthy Nutrition Builds Health,
Starting With the Cells (Graphics) by
whfood.org