REPRODUCTION IN

ORGANISMS CLASS
XII
ASEXUAL MODE OF REPRODUCTION
REPRODUCTION
 Reproduction is defined as a biological
process in which an organism gives rise
to young ones (offspring) similar to itself.
 The offspring grow, mature and in turn
produce new offspring. Thus, there is a
cycle of birth, growth and death.
Reproduction enables the continuity of
the species, generation after generation.
Life span
 The period from birth to the natural
death of an organism represents its life
span.
 Figure 1.1 Approximate life spans of
some organisms (NCERT XII) page
no.
S. NO. ORHANISMS LIFE SPAN

1 Mayfly 24 hours

2 Elephant 70 years

3 Dog 20-30 years

4 Butter fly 1-2 weeks

5 Banana tree 25 years

6 Cow 20-25 years

7 Rose 5-7 years

8 Horse 60 years

9 Fruit fly 30 days

10 Tortoise 100-150 years

11 Parrot 140 years

12 Crocodile 60 years
 REPRODUCTION
 Based on whether there is participation of one
organism or two in the process of reproduction,
it is of two types.
 Asexual Reproduction- When offspring is
produced by a single parent with or without the
involvement of gamete formation, the
reproduction is asexual.
 Sexual Reproduction-When two parents
(opposite sex) participate in the reproductive
process and also involve fusion of male and
female gametes, it is called sexual reproduction.
REPRODUCTION TYPES
 In broad sense we can classify the
reproduction in various types:
 1.Asexual
 2.Vegetative
 3.Parthenogenesis.
 4.Sexual
What is Asexual
Reproduction?
 Only one parent is involved.
 Offspring are genetically identical to their
parents.
 All cells that come from a single cell are
genetically identical to it and to each
other; they are all clones.
 Single individual (parent) is capable of
producing offspring.
 The offspring are not only Identical also
exact copies of their parent.
 Types of Asexual
Reproduction
1. Mitosis - is the
exact duplication of
the nucleus of a cell
so as to form two
identical nuclei
during cell division.
Types of Asexual Reproduction

2. Binary Fission -
occurs in one-celled
organisms such as
the ameba and
paramecium. The
nucleus divides by
mitosis and the
cytoplasm divides,
forming 2 new
daughter cells of
equal size.
Types of Asexual
Reproduction

3. Budding - Occurs in Hydra

and yeast. The division of
cytoplasm is unequal so
one of the daughter cells is
larger than the other. The
daughter cells can separate
or remain attached.
Types of Asexual
Reproduction
4. Sporulation -
occurs in molds,
mosses, etc
 Spores are produced

in large numbers by
mitosis.
 Spores are

surrounded by a
tough coat to help
them survive harsh
environmental
conditions.
Spores
 Encdospores –Some bacteria produce
resting spores by forming of hard
impearmeable coat.
 Zoospores -The most common structures
are zoospores that usually are
microscopic motile structures produce
by zoosporangium.Ulothrix
 Aplanospores-Unicellular,non-motile,non-
flagellate by sprongium.eg Mucor
Spores
 Conidium –Non-motile spores singly or in
chain from the tip of conidiophores.eg
Penicillium.
 Chlamydospore-Non-
motile,unicellular,non-motile,thick walled
resting spores.eg Fusarium.
 Akinete –Enlarge cell of filamentous
algae due to storage of food and thick
walled structure.eg Nostoc
Asexual reproductive structures: (a) Zoospores of Chlamydomonas; (b) Conidia of
Penicillium; (c) Buds in Hydra; (d) Gemmules in sponge
Types of Asexual
Reproduction
5.Regeneratio
n - Refers to
the
replacement or
regrowth of
lost or
damaged body
parts
Some of these
animals can also
grow new
organisms from
the severed
pieces
(Segmented
Worms and Sea
Stars)
Types of Asexual
Reproduction
6.Vegetative
Propagation –
Occurs only in
plants
(vegetative). New
plants develop
from the roots,
stems, or leaves of
the parent plant.
vegetative propagation( Natural methods)

Vegetative propagation grouped into two

different methods: Natural and Artificial.
Natural methods are such as
 Leaf

 Runner

 Rhizome

 Sucker

 Tuber

 Bulb and

 Offset

These structures are called vegetative

propagules.
Vegetative propagule (a) Eyes of potato; (b) Rhizome of ginger; (c) Bulbil
of Agave; (d) Leaf buds of Bryophyllum; (e) Offset of water hyacinth
Runners

Runners are side shoots

which grow out from the
parent plant.
Buds form at points along the
runner and eventually these
buds form roots and grow into
new plants.

Examples: spider plant

(Anthericum), strawberry
(Fragaria x ananassa)
RHIZOME
 Rhizomes are modified underground
stems that give rise new plants.E .g
Ginger
SUCKER
 Suckers are modified underground
stems that give rise new plants.E g
Chrysanthemum
Tubers
Tubers are underground food
stores which stores food over
the winter and provides a new
plant with food until it can
make its own.

Examples: potato,
artichoke, yam, cassava,
water chestnut, arrowroot
Taro-
Japanese Food made by the new plant is
potato sent to make new tubers.
Thereby reproducing itself.
Bulbs
 Bulbils are fleshy buds which take part
in vegetative propagation. E.g.
daffodils, lilies
OFFSET
 The ‘terror of Bengal’ this is nothing but
the aquatic plant ‘water hyacinth’ which
is one of the most invasive weeds found
growing wherever there is standing
water. It drains oxygen from the water,
which leads to death of fishes.
 It reproduce through offset.
Artificial Propagation
 2 methods used to cultivate plants
asexually
-taking cuttings
-grafting
Cutting
Cuttings are small pieces of stem with some leaves
attached, the new plant grows from this.

They can be placed in moist

soil or water (and sometimes
dipped in rooting
powder).
 Grafting

A cut stem of one plant (with good flower or fruit

growth) (the graft) is taken and firmly attached
to the rootstock of another plant (which has a
strong, established root system) (the stock).
Examples- roses, fruit trees
Commercial aspects

Artificial propagation has allowed us to

adapt and improve plants for our own
use.
Some of the benefits include:
•Quick production of large numbers of
genetically identical plants.
•Specific varieties, desired features or
consistent quality can be produced
especially in fruit, flowers.
Parthenogenesis(Virgin
birth)
 In some organisms like rotifers,
honeybees and even some lizards and
birds (turkey), the female gamete
undergoes development to form new
organisms without fertilisation.
 This phenomenon is called
parthenogenesis.
 Parthenogenesis
 Offspring can arise
from unfertilized eggs.
 Includes some Fish,
Reptiles, Amphibians
and Aphids.
 Most of these species
can switch between
Sexual and Asexual
Reproduction.
(depending on conditions)
Asexual Reproduction
 Asexual reproduction is natural
“cloning.” Parts of the plant, such as
leaves or stems, produce roots and
become an independent plant.
 List some benefits and some
drawbacks to asexual reproduction.
 To overcome the demerits of asexual
reproduction plants and animal
exhibits sexual reproduction.
REPRODUCTION IN
ORGANISMS
Sexual reproduction
Sexual Reproduction
 Sexual reproduction requires fusion of
male cells in the pollen grain with
female cells in the ovule.
 List some advantages and drawbacks
to sexual reproduction.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Sexual reproduction involves formation
of the male and female gametes, either
by the same individual or by different
individuals of the opposite sex.
 These gametes fuse to form the zygote
which develops to form the new
organism.
STAGES IN LIFE
 Plants–the annual and biennial types, show
clear cut
 1.Vegetative phase,
 2.Reproductive phase and
 3.Senescence phase, .
 In animals, the juvenile phase is followed by
morphological and physiological changes
prior to active reproductive behaviour.
 The reproductive phase is also of variable
duration in different organisms.
JUVENILE STAGE
 All organisms have to reach a certain
stage of growth and maturity in their life,
before they can reproduce sexually.
 That period of growth is called the
juvenile phase. It is known as vegetative
phase in plants.
 This phase is of variable durations in
different organisms.
REPRODUCTIVE PHASE

 All organisms have to reach a

reproductive maturity in their life called
reproductive stage.
 Among animals, for example birds, do
they lay eggs all through the year? Or is
it a seasonal phenomenon?
 What about other animals like frogs and
lizards?
REPRODUCTIVE PHASE
 Birds living in nature lay eggs only
seasonally.
 However, birds in captivity (as in poultry
farms) can be made to lay eggs
throughout the year.
 The females of placental mammals
exhibit cyclical changes in the activities
of ovaries and accessory ducts as well as
hormones during the reproductive phase.
REPRODUCTIVE PHASE
 In non-primate mammals like cows,
sheep, rats, deers, dogs, tiger, etc., such
cyclical changes during reproduction are
called oestrus cycle or heat cycle.
 In primates (monkeys, apes, and
humans) there is periodic blood flow
from uterus it is called menstrual cycle.
REPRODUCTIVE PHASE
 Many mammals, especially those living
in natural, wild conditions exhibit
menstrual cycles only during favourable
seasons in their reproductive phase and
are called seasonal breeders.
 Many other mammals are
reproductively active throughout their
reproductive phase and hence are called
continuous breeders.
SENESCENCE STAGE

 All organisms reach to a reproductive

maturity and then growing older in their
life called senescence stage.
 This phase can be considered as one of
the parameters of senescence or old
age.
 There are concomitant changes in the
body (like slowing of metabolism, etc.)
during this last phase of life span. Old
age ultimately leads to death.
Events in sexual
reproduction
 After attainment of maturity, all
sexually reproducing organisms exhibit
events and processes that have
remarkable fundamental similarity,
even though the structures associated
with sexual reproduction are indeed
very different.
 Sexual reproduction is characterised by
the fusion (or fertilisation) of the male
and female gametes, the formation of
zygote and embryogenesis.
Events in sexual
reproduction
 For convenience these sequential events
may be grouped into three distinct
stages namely,
 1.Pre-fertilisation,
 2.Fertilisation and
 3. Post-fertilisation events.
1.Pre-fertilisation
 These include all the events of sexual
reproduction prior to the fusion of
gametes.
 The two main pre-fertilisation events are
 (A) Gametogenesis and
 (B) Gamete transfer.
(A) Gametogenesis
 Gametogenesis refers to the process
of formation of the two types of
gametes – male and female.
 Gametes are haploid cells.
 In some algae the two gametes are
so similar in appearance that it is
not possible to categorise them into
male and female gametes.
 They are hence called homogametes
(isogametes)
Cont.
 In a majority of sexually reproducing
organisms the gametes produced are of
two morphologically distinct types
(heterogametes).
 In such organisms the male gamete is
called the antherozoid or sperm and the
female gamete is called the egg or
ovum.
Gametogenesis: Male
Gametogenesis: Female
(B) Gamete transfer.
 Male and female gametes must be
physically brought together to facilitate
fusion (fertilisation).
 There is a need for a medium through
which the male gametes move. In
several simple plants like algae,
bryophytes and pteridophytes, water is
the medium through which this gamete
transfer takes place..
POLLINATION
 In seed plants, pollen grains are the
carriers of male gametes and ovule have
the egg.
 Pollen grains produced in anthers
therefore, have to be transferred to the
stigma before it can lead to fertilisation.
 A specialised event called pollination
facilitates transfer of pollen grains to the
stigma.
2.Fertilisation

 The most vital event of sexual

reproduction is perhaps the fusion of
gametes. This process called
syngamy results in the formation of
a diploid zygote.
 The term fertilisation is also often
used for this process.
 It is of two types-
 External fertilization and
 Internal fertilization
3. Post-fertilisation events
 Events in sexual reproduction after the
formation of zygote are called post-
fertilisation events.
 It includes
 Zygote and
 Embryogenesis
The Zygote
 Formation of the diploid zygote is
universal in all sexually reproducing
organisms.
 In organisms with external fertilisation,
zygote is formed in the external medium
(usually water), whereas in those
exhibiting internal fertilisation, zygote is
formed inside the body of the organism.
Embryogenesis
 Embryogenesis refers to the process of
development of embryo from the zygote.
 Zygote undergoes cell division (mitosis)
and cell differentiation.
 While cell divisions increase the number
of cells in the developing embryo; cell
differentiation helps groups of cells to
undergo certain modifications to form
specialised tissues and organs to form an
organism.
Cont.
 In flowering plants, the zygote is formed
inside the ovule.
 After fertilisation the sepals, petals and
stamens of the flower wither and fall off.
 The zygote develops into the embryo
and the ovules develop into the seed.
The ovary develops into the fruit which
develops a thick wall called pericarp that
is protective in function.
Seed Germination
END OF CHAPTER