LESSON 3

PERPETUATION OF LIFE

There are varieties of organism in animal kingdom that means they possess different modes of reproduction
depending on the complexity of their morphology and physiology.

Simple organisms reproduce through asexual reproduction – offspring come from a single parent and has the exact
copy of the genes hence referred as “clone”. Sexual reproduction in animals is the production of new living organism
by combining two gametes from different organism, one male producing motile gamete that must fused with the
egg cell from female organism.

Through this process similarity is preserve with respect to the transfer of genes from the parts to offspring and
individuality that explains the individual characteristics possessed by an organism different from their parents nor
siblings.

What is Reproduction?
- is the biological process by which new individual organisms – “offspring” – are produced from their
“parent” or parents.
- is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists are the result of reproduction.

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

Asexual reproduction - is defined as the formation of new individuals from the cells of a single parent. This is
very common in plants and is less common in animals. Animals. Asexual reproduction does not involve the union of
gametes (sperm cell and egg cell) and it does not change the number of chromosomes present. The resulting
offspring is similar or identical to the parent and without the need for a mate, they are able to reproduce.

Sexual reproduction - is the perpetuation of a new organism from two organisms with the use of gametes. In
this process, male gametes which is the sperm cell fuses with a female gamete known as the egg cell to form a
diploid cell called zygote containing two sets of chromosomes. During sexual reproduction, the genetic material
contained in their chromosomes combine to produce genetically diverse offspring that are different from both
parents.

Asexual Reproduction in Animals

The formation of new individuals from cells of a single parent resulting offspring that is similar or identical to

the parent (clone). Is the generation of new individuals without the fusion of egg and sperm.

1. Through the process of mitosis, unicellular or one-celled organisms, such as amoeba or paramecium, can

reproduce an exact copy of the parent called binary fission. A cell divides to produce two identical cells. Each of
these two cells has the potential to grow to the size of the original cell. The separation of a parent
organism into two individuals of
approximately equal size.

2. In multicellular organisms, particularly invertebrates such as cnidarians sponges and flatworms, asexual
reproduction occurs through many forms to perpetuate their kind. Cnidarians such as hydras reproduce asexually by

budding. A new individual grows on the body of its parent. It occurs when individuals arise throughout the
outgrowns from a parent.
3. Annelids, such as the earthworm, can also reproduce by regenerating parts through fragmentation.

Regeneration - occurs when an organism wants to regrow a lost part of their body

Fragmentation - refers to the parent organisms breaking into fragments and each fragments develops into a
new organism.

Regeneration Fragmentation

4. Animals that reproduce asexually may also reproduce sexually to ensure perpetuation and survival of their
species. Some parasitic worms reproduce asexually during certain stages of their life cycle. In some cases, animals
can reproduce through a modified process of sexual reproduction, which gives rise to complete offspring from
unfertilized eggs called parthenogenesis.

Sexual Reproduction in Animals

Higher forms of animals reproduce through a process involving sex cells or gametes produced by the
parents. Mojority of the animals are dioecious – have separate sexes. The testes produce male gametes and the
ovaries produce female gametes through the process of gametogenesis. However, some animals are
hermaphrodites – they posses both male and female organs. Among many fish and lizards they have the ability to
change their sexes either through social and environmental pressures. This process called sequential
hermaphroditism or sex reversal. In bluehead wrasse fish, the presence of protogony (from female to male) and
protandry (from male to female)

Sexual reproduction in animals occurs in three fundamental steps:

Gametogenesis: production of gametes
Spawning or mating: bringing gametes together
Fertilization: fusion of gametes

Types of Reproduction

1. In many organisms, particularly aquatic animals, sexual reproduction occurs outside of the body called external
fertilization. Female lay eggs usually on the sea bed or river bed. Animals that practice external fertilization are
called oviparous organisms.
2. Type of sexual reproduction where the animal gives birth to the young one and exhibit internal fertilization are
called viviparous

3. They are the mixed of viviparous and oviparous animals are example of internal fertilization are called
ovoviparous. Their embryos develop inside an egg which grows insides the mothers womb.

Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Natural Vegetative Reproduction
The type of reproduction in plants from its vegetative parts is called vegetative reproduction. The structures
of plants that reproduce vegetatively come mostly from modified stems, such as runners, tubers, corms, and
rhizomes.

Runners
The horizontal stems have nodes or regions where
a new shoot system and root system can be produced
above and below them. It reproduce by means of long,
horizontal stems that run along the surface of the soil.
Example is Strawberry.

Rhizomes
Horizontal underground plant stem capable of producing
the shoot and root systems of a new plant. An underground
stems that allow some plants to form a network and produce
their kind. Example is ginger.

Corm
A short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf bases that function
as food storage organs during dormancy. They are actually
enlarged underground stems that store nutrients, surrounded
by papery outer layers. After stems sprout from the corm, buds
form on top of the stem. Corms at their center are solid tissue,
whereas Bulbs are immature layers of leaves.
Bulb
A bulb is comprised of a plant's stem and leaves. The bottom
of the bulb is a compacted stem, and roots grow from this part
of the bulb. Layers of nutrient-filled leaves sit at the bottom of
the bulb and surround a bud that eventually becomes the flower.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Angiosperms commonly known as flowering plants. Their life cycle centers on reproducing sexually through
their plants.In flowering plants, the male gametophyte is the pollen grain, which develops from microspores and the
female gametophyte is the embryo sac which develops from a megaspore.Through the reproductive pattern in
alternation of generation, diploid sporophyte generation produces haploid gametophyte generation.

Sepals (calyx) – leaflike green structures protecting the bud as the flower develops
Petals (corolla) – large leaflike part of a plants that that is colorful to attract a specific pollinators.
Stamen – are the long, filamentous structures. At the tip of the stamen is the bulging area structure called anther
which contains pollen grains
Carpels – vaselike shaped structure that contains bulging ovary, slender stalk called style and the stigma with a
sticky tip.

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