Chemistry

The Molecular Nature of Matter and

Change Eighth Edition

Martin S. Silberberg and Patricia G. Amateis

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 Three Major Classes of Chemical Reactions
• 4.1 Solution Concentration and the Role of Water
as a Solvent
• 4.2 Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic Reactions
• 4.3 Precipitation Reactions
• 4.4 Acid-Base Reactions
• 4.5 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions
• 4.6 Elements in Redox Reactions
• 4.7 The Reversibility of Reactions and the
Equilibrium State

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 Water as a Solvent
• A solution consists of a smaller quantity of one substance, the
solute, dissolved in a larger quantity of another, the solvent; in
an aqueous solution, water serves as the solvent.
• Some solvents passively disperse the substances into
individual molecules. But water is much more active,
interacting strongly with the substances and even reacting
with them in some cases.

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Electron Distribution in
Molecules of H2 and H2O

Figure 4.1

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 An Ionic Compound Dissolving in Water

Figure 4.2

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 The Electrical Conductivity of Ionic Solutions

Figure 4.3
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 Sample Problem 4.1 - Problem
Using Molecular Scenes to Depict an Ionic Compound in
Aqueous Solution
• PROBLEM: The beakers shown below contain aqueous
solutions of the strong electrolyte potassium sulfate.
– (a) Which beaker best represents the compound in solution? (H2O
molecules are not shown).
– (b) If each particle represents 0.10 mol, what is the total number of
particles in solution?

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 Sample Problem 4.1 – Plan and Solution (a)
• PLAN: (a) Determine the formula and write an equation for
the dissociation of 1 mol of the compound. Potassium sulfate
is a strong electrolyte; it therefore dissociates completely in
solution. Remember that polyatomic ions remain intact in
solution. (b) Count the number of separate particles in the
relevant beaker, then multiply by 0.1 mol and by Avogadro’s
number.
• SOLUTION: (a) The formula is K2SO4, so the equation for
dissociation is: K2SO4 (s) → 2K+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)
There should be 2 cations for every 1 anion; beaker C represents
this correctly.

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 Sample Problem 4.1 – Solution (b)
• Solution: (b) Beaker C contains 9 particles, 6 K+ ions and 3
SO42- ions.

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 Sample Problem 4.2 – Problem and Plan
Determining Amount (mol) of Ions in Solution
• PROBLEM: What amount (mol) of each ion is in each
solution?
– (a) 5.0 mol of ammonium sulfate dissolved in water
– (b) 78.5 g of cesium bromide dissolved in water
– (c) 7.42x1022 formula units of copper(II) nitrate dissolved in water

• PLAN: Write an equation for the dissociation of 1 mol of each

compound. Use this information to calculate the actual
number of moles represented by the given quantity of
substance in each case.

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 Sample Problem 4.2 – Solution (a)
• SOLUTION: (a) The formula is (NH4)2SO4 so the equation for
dissociation is: (NH4)2SO4 (s) → 2NH4+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)

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 Sample Problem 4.2 – Solution (b)
• SOLUTION: (b) The formula is CsBr so the equation for
dissociation is: CsBr (s) → Cs+ (aq) + Br- (aq)

There is one Cs+ ion for every Br- ion, so the number of moles of
Br- is also equal to 0.369 mol.

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 Sample Problem 4.2 – Solution (c)
• SOLUTION: (c) The formula is Cu(NO3)2 so the formula for
dissociation is: Cu(NO3)2 (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2NO3- (aq)

There are 2 NO3- ions for every 1 Cu2+ ion, so there are 0.246 mol
NO3- ions.

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 Concentration of Solutions & Molarity
• Many reactions occur in solution.
• A solution consists of one or more solutes dissolved in a
solvent.
• The concentration of a solution is given by the quantity of
solute present in a given quantity of solution.
• Molarity (M) is often used to express concentration

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 Sample Problem 4.3 – Problem and Plan
Calculating the Molarity of a Solution
• PROBLEM: What is the molarity of
an aqueous solution that contains
53.7g of glycine (H2NCH2COOH) in
495 mL?
• PLAN: Molarity is the number of
moles of solute per liter of solution.

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 Sample Problem 4.3 – Solution
• SOLUTION:

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Mass-mole-number-volume Relationships in Solution

Figure 4.4

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 Sample Problem 4.4 – Problem and Plan
Calculating Mass of Solute in a
Given Volume of Solution
• PROBLEM: How many grams
of solute are in 1.75 L of 0.460
M sodium hydrogen
phosphate buffer solution?
• PLAN: Calculate the moles of
solute using the given
molarity and volume. Convert
moles to mass using the molar
mass of the solute.

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 Sample Problem 4.4 – Solution
• SOLUTION:

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 Sample Problem 4.5 – Problem and Plan
Determining Amount (mol) of Ions in a Solution
• PROBLEM: What amount (mol) of each ion is in 35 mL of 0.84
M zinc chloride?
• PLAN: We write an equation that shows 1 mol of compound
dissociating into ions. We convert molarity and volume to
moles of zinc chloride and use the dissociation equation to
convert moles of compound to moles of ions.

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 Sample Problem 4.5 – Solution
• SOLUTION: ZnCl2 (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2Cl– (aq)
• Converting from volume (mL) and molarity (mol/L) to amount
(mol) of compound:

2.9 x 10–2 mol Zn2+ is also present

CHECK: The relative numbers of moles of ions are consistent with
the formula for ZnCl2: 0.029 mol Zn2+/0.058 mol Cl– = 1 Zn2+ / 2
Cl–, or ZnCl2.

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Laboratory Preparation
of Molar Solutions

Figure 4.5
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 Converting a Concentrated Solution to a Dilute
Solution

Figure 4.6

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 Sample Problem 4.6 – Problem and Plan
Preparing a Dilute Solution from a
Concentrated Solution
• PROBLEM: “Isotonic saline” is a 0.15
M aqueous solution of NaCl. How
would you prepare 0.80 L of isotonic
saline from a 6.0 M stock solution?
• PLAN: To dilute a concentrated
solution, we add only solvent, so the
moles of solute are the same in both
solutions. We use the volume and
molarity of the dilute solution to
calculate the moles of solute. Then
we calculate the volume of
concentrated solution that contains
the same number of moles.

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 Sample Problem 4.6 - Solution
• SOLUTION: Mdil x Vdil = # mol solute = Mconc x Vconc
Using the volume and molarity for the dilute solution:

Using the moles of solute and molarity for the concentrated

solution:

A 0.020 L portion of the concentrated solution must be diluted

to a final volume of 0.80 L.

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 Sample Problem 4.7 – Problem and Plan
Visualizing Changes in Concentration
• PROBLEM: The beaker and circle represents a unit volume of
solution. Draw the solution after each of these changes:
– (a) For every 1 mL of solution, 1 mL of solvent is added.
– (b) One third of the volume of the solution is boiled off.

• PLAN: Only the volume of the solution changes; the total

number of moles of solute remains the same. Find the new
volume and calculate the number of moles of solute per unit
volume.

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 Sample Problem 4.7 - Solution
• SOLUTION: Ndil x Vdil = Nconc x Vconc where N is the number of
particles.
(a)
(b)

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 Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic Reactions

Figure 4.7

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 Total Ionic Equation
• The total ionic equation shows all soluble ionic substances
dissociated into ions. This gives the most accurate information
about species in solution.

• Spectator ions are ions that are not involved in the actual
chemical change. Spectator ions appear unchanged on both
sides of the total ionic equation.

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 Net Ionic Equation
• The net ionic equation eliminates the spectator ions and
shows only the actual chemical change.

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 Precipitation Reactions
• In a precipitation reaction two soluble ionic compounds react
to give an insoluble product, called a precipitate.
• The precipitate forms through the net removal of ions from
solution.
• It is possible for more than one precipitate to form in such a
reaction

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Precipitation of
Calcium Fluoride

Figure 4.8
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 Predicting Whether a Precipitate Will Form
• Note the ions present in the reactants.

• Consider all possible cation-anion combinations.

• Use the solubility rules to decide whether any of the ion

combinations is insoluble.
– Any insoluble combination identifies a precipitate that will form.

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 Solubility Rules for Ionic Compounds in Water
Soluble Ionic Compounds Insoluble Exceptions
All common compounds of Group lA(1) ions (Li +, Na+, None
K+, etc.)

All common compounds of ammonium ion (NH 4+) None

All common nitrates (NO3−), acetates (CH3COO− or

None
C2H3O2−), and perchlorates (ClO4−)

All common chlorides (Cl−), bromides (Br−), and Chlorides, bromides, and iodides of Ag +, Pb2+, Cu+, and
iodides (I−) Hg22+
All common fluorides (F−) PbF2 and fluorides of Group 2A(2)
All common sulfates (SO42−) CaSO4, SrSO4, BaSO4, Ag2SO4, PbSO4
Insoluble Ionic Compounds Soluble Exceptions
Group 1A(1) hydroxides and Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, and
All common metal hydroxides
Ba(OH)2
All common carbonates (CO32-) and phosphates
Carbonates and phosphates of Group 1A(1) and NH 4+
(PO43–)

All common sulfides Sulfides of Group 1A(1), Group 2A(2), and NH4+

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 Precipitation of PbI2, a Metathesis Reaction

• Precipitation reactions are also called

double displacement reactions or
metathesis reactions.

• Ions exchange partners and a precipitate

forms, so there is an exchange of bonds
between reacting species.

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 Sample Problem 4.8 – Problem and Plan
Predicting Whether a Precipitation Reaction Occurs; Writing
Ionic Equations
• PROBLEM: Predict whether or not a reaction occurs when
each of the following pairs of solutions are mixed. If a
reaction does occur, write balanced molecular, total ionic, and
net ionic equations, and identify the spectator ions.
– (a) potassium fluoride (aq) + strontium nitrate (aq) →

– (b) ammonium perchlorate (aq) + sodium bromide (aq) →

• PLAN: Note reactant ions, write the possible cation-anion

combinations, and use Table 4.1 to decide if the combinations
are insoluble. Write the appropriate equations for the
process.

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 Sample Problem 4.8 – Solution (a)
• SOLUTION: (a) The reactants are KF and Sr(NO3)2. The possible
products are KNO3 and SrF2. KNO3 is soluble, but SrF2 is an
insoluble combination.

Molecular equation:

Total ionic equation:

K+ and NO3- are spectator ions

Net ionic equation:

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 Sample Problem 4.8 – Solution (b)
• SOLUTION: (b) The reactants are NH4ClO4 and NaBr. The
possible products are NH4Br and NaClO4. Both are soluble, so
no precipitate forms.
• Molecular equation:

Total ionic equation:

All ions are spectator ions and there is no net ionic equation.
The compounds remain in solution as solvated ions.

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 Sample Problem 4.9 - Problem
Using Molecular Depictions in Precipitation Reactions
• PROBLEM: The following molecular views show reactant
solutions for a precipitation reaction (with H2O molecules
omitted for clarity).
– (a) Which compound is dissolved in beaker A: KCl, Na2SO4, MgBr2, or
Ag2SO4?
– (b) Which compound is dissolved in beaker B: NH4NO3, MgSO4,
Ba(NO3)2, or CaF2?
– (c) Name the precipitate and the spectator ions when solutions A and
B are mixed, and write balanced molecular, total ionic, and net ionic
equations for any reaction.
– (d) If each particle represents 0.010 mol
of ions, what is the maximum mass (g) of
precipitate that can form (assuming
complete reaction)?
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 Sample Problem 4.9 – Plan and Solution (a) and (b)
• PLAN: (a) and (b) Note the number and charge of each kind of
ion and use Table 4.1 to determine the ion combinations that
are soluble.
• SOLUTION: (a) Beaker A contains two 1+ ions for each 2- ion.
Of the choices given, only Na2SO4 and Ag2SO4 are possible.
Na2SO4 is soluble while Ag2SO4 is not.

Beaker A therefore contains Na2SO4.

• (b) Beaker B contains two 1- ions for each 2+ ion. Of the

choices given, only CaF2 and Ba(NO3)2 match this description.
CaF2 is not soluble while Ba(NO3)2 is soluble.

Beaker B therefore contains Ba(NO3)2.

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 Sample Problem 4.9 – Plan and Solution (c)
• PLAN: (c) Consider the cation-anion combinations from the two solutions
and use Table 4.1 to decide if either of these is insoluble.

• SOLUTION: (c) The reactants are Ba(NO3)2 and Na2SO4. The possible
products are BaSO4 and NaNO3. BaSO4 is insoluble while NaNO3 is soluble.

Molecular equation:

Total ionic equation:

Na+ and NO3- are spectator ions

Net ionic equation:

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 Sample Problem 4.9 – Plan and Solution (d)
• PLAN: (d) Count the number of each kind of ion that
combines to form the solid. Multiply the number of each
reactant ion by 0.010 mol and calculate the mol of product
formed from each. Decide which ion is the limiting reactant
and use this information to calculate the mass of product
formed.
• SOLUTION: (d) There are 4 Ba2+ particles and 5 SO42- particles
depicted.

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 Sample Problem 4.9 – Solution (d), Cont’d
• Ba2+ ion is the limiting reactant, since the given amount yields
less BaSO4.

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 Sample Problem 4.10 – Problem and Plan
Calculating Amounts of Reactants and Products in a Precipitation Reaction
• PROBLEM: Magnesium is the second most abundant metal in sea water
after sodium. The first step in its industrial extraction involves the reaction
of Mg2+ with Ca(OH)2 to precipitate Mg(OH)2. What mass of Mg(OH)2 is
formed when 0.180 L of 0.0155 M MgCl2 reacts with excess Ca(OH)2?
• PLAN: We are given the molarity (0.0155 M) and the volume (0.180 L) of
MgCl2 solution that reacts with excess Ca(OH)2, and we must calculate the
mass of the precipitate, Mg(OH)2.

(i) Write the balanced equation.

(ii) Find the amount (mol) of MgCl2 from its molarity and volume.
(iii) Use molar (stoichiometric) ratios to calculate the amount (mol) of
Mg(OH)2 precipitated.
(iv) Use molar mass of Mg(OH)2 to convert amount (mol) to mass (g).

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 Sample Problem 4.10 – Plan

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 Sample Problem 4.10 – Solution
• SOLUTION: (i) Write the balanced equation.

• (ii) Find the amount (mol) of MgCl2 from its molarity and
volume.

• (iii) Use molar (stoichiometric) ratios to calculate the amount

(mol) of Mg(OH)2 precipitated.

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 Sample Problem 4.10 – Solution Cont’d
• (iv) Use molar mass of Mg(OH)2 to convert amount (mol) to
mass (g).

• CHECK: The answer seems reasonable; rounding to check the

math shows that we have (0.2 L) x (0.02 M) = 0.004 mol
MgCl2; due to the 1:1 molar ratio, 0.004 mol Mg(OH)2 is
produced.

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 Amount-mass-number Relationships

Figure 4.10
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 Sample Problem 4.11 – Problem
Solving Limiting-Reactant Problems for Precipitation Reactions
• PROBLEM: Iron(III) hydroxide, used to adsorb arsenic and heavy
metals from contaminated soil and water, is produced by reacting
aqueous solutions of iron(III) chloride and sodium hydroxide.
– (a) What mass of iron(III) hydroxide is formed when 0.155 L of 0.250 M
iron(III) chloride reacts with 0.215 L of 0.300 M sodium?
– (b) Write a reaction table for this process.

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 Sample Problem 4.11 –Plan
• PLAN: From the molarity and volume
of each solution, we calculate the
amount (mol) of each reactant. Then,
we use the molar ratio to find the
amount of product [Fe(OH)3] that
each reactant forms. The limiting
reactant forms fewer moles of
Fe(OH)3, which we convert to mass (g)
of Fe(OH)3 using its molar mass (see
the road map). We use the amount of
Fe(OH)3 formed from the limiting
reactant in a reaction table.

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 Sample Problem 4.11 – Solution (a)
• SOLUTION: (a)

NaOH is the limiting reactant because the given amount yields

less Fe(OH)3.

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 Sample Problem 4.11 – Solution (b)
• (b) The reaction table is constructed using the amount of
Hg(NO3)2 to determine the changes, since it is the limiting
reactant.

Amount FeCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s) + 3NaCl(aq)

Initial 0.0388 0.0645 0 0

Change −0.0215 −0.0645 +0.0215 +0.0645

Final 0.0173 0 0.0215 +0.0645

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 Acid-Base Reactions
• An acid is a substance that produces H+ ions when dissolved in
H2O.

• A base is a substance that produces OH- ions when dissolved

in H2O.

• An acid-base reaction is also called a neutralization reaction.

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 H+ Ion as a Solvated Hydronium Ion
H+ interacts strongly with H2O, forming H3O+ in aqueous
solution.

Figure 4.11

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 Strong and Weak Acids
Acids
Strong
Hydrochloric acid, HCl
Hydrobromic acid, HBr
Hydriodic acid, HI
Nitric acid, HNO3
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4
Perchloric acid, HClO4
Weak (a few of many examples)
Hydrofluoric acid, HF
Phosphoric acid, H3PO4
Acetic acid, CH3COOH (or HC2H3O2)

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 Strong and Weak Bases
Bases
Strong
Group 1A(1) hydroxides:
Lithium hydroxide, LiOH
Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
Potassium hydroxide, KOH
Rubidium hydroxide, RbOH
Cesium hydroxide, CsOH
Heavy Group 2A(2) hydroxides:
Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
Strontium hydroxide, Sr(OH)2
Barium hydroxide, Ba(OH)2
Weak (one of many examples)
Ammonia, NH3

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 Acids and Bases as Electrolytes
• Strong acids and strong bases dissociate completely into ions
in aqueous solution.
• They are strong electrolytes and conduct well in solution.

Figure 4.12

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 Acids and Bases as Electrolytes, Cont’d
• Weak acids and weak bases dissociate very little into ions in
aqueous solution.
• They are weak electrolytes and conduct poorly in solution.

Figure 4.12

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 Sample Problem 4.12 – Problem and Plan
Determining the Number of H+ (or OH-)
Ions in Solution
• PROBLEM: How many H+(aq) ions are
in 25.3 mL of 1.4 M nitric acid?
• PLAN: Use the volume and molarity to
determine the mol of acid present.
Since HNO3 is a strong acid, moles acid
= moles H+.

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 Sample Problem 4.12 - Solution
• SOLUTION:

One mole of H+(aq) is released per mole of nitric acid (HNO3).

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 Sample Problem 4.13 – Problem and Plan
Writing Ionic Equations for Acid-Base Reactions
• PROBLEM: Write balanced molecular, total ionic, and net
ionic equations for the following acid-base reactions and
identify the spectator ions.

(a) hydrochloric acid (aq) + potassium hydroxide (aq) →

(b) strontium hydroxide (aq) + perchloric acid (aq) →

(c) barium hydroxide (aq) + sulfuric acid (aq) →

• PLAN: All reactants are strong acids and bases (see Table 4.2).
The product in each case is H2O and an ionic salt. Write the
molecular reaction in each case and use the solubility rules to
determine if the product is soluble or not.

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 Sample Problem 4.13 – Solution (a)
• SOLUTION: (a) Molecular equation:

• Total ionic equation:

• Net ionic equation:

• Spectator ions are K+ and Cl-

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 Sample Problem 4.13 – Solution (b)
• SOLUTION: (b) Molecular equation:

• Total ionic equation:

• Net ionic equation:

• Spectator ions are Sr2+ and ClO4-

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 Sample Problem 4.13 – Solution (c)
• SOLUTION: (c) Molecular equation:

• Total ionic equation:

• The net ionic equation is the same as the total ionic equation
since there are no spectator ions.
• This reaction is both a neutralization reaction and a
precipitation reaction.

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 Proton-transfer Process

Figure 4.13
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 A Gas-forming Reaction with a Weak Acid

Figure 4.14

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 Sample Problem 4.14 - Problem
Writing Proton-Transfer Equations for Acid-Base Reactions
• PROBLEM: Write balanced total and net ionic equations for
the following reactions and use curved arrows to show how
the proton transfer occurs.
– (a) hydriodic acid (aq) + calcium hydroxide (aq) →
Give the name and formula of the salt present when the water
evaporates.
– (b) potassium hydroxide (aq) + propionic acid (aq) →
Note that propionic acid is a weak acid. Be sure to identify the spectator
ions in this reaction.

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 Sample Problem 4.14 – Plan and Solution (a)
• PLAN: In (a) the reactants are a strong acid and a strong base.
The acidic species is therefore H3O+, which transfers a proton
to the OH- from the base.
• SOLUTION: (a) Total Ionic Equation: (H+ transferred to OH-)

• Net Ionic Equation:

• When the water evaporates, the salt remaining is CaI2,

calcium iodide.

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 Sample Problem 4.14 – Plan and Solution (b)
• PLAN: In (b) the acid is weak; therefore it does not dissociate
much and largely exists as intact molecules in solution.
• SOLUTION: (b) Total Ionic Equation: (H+ transferred to OH-)

Net Ionic Equation:

K+ is the only spectator ion in the reaction.

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 Acid-Base Titrations
• In a titration, the concentration of one solution is used to
determine the concentration of another.
• In an acid-base titration, a standard solution of base is usually
added to a sample of acid of unknown molarity.
• An acid-base indicator has different colors in acid and base,
and is used to monitor the reaction progress.
• At the equivalence point, the mol of H+ from the acid equals
the mol of OH- ion produced by the base.
– Amount of H+ ion in flask = amount of OH- ion added

• The end point occurs when there is a slight excess of base and
the indicator changes color permanently.

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 An Acid-base Titration

Figure 4.15

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 Sample Problem 4.15 – Problem and Plan
Calculating the Amounts of Reactants and
Products in an Acid-Base Reaction
• PROBLEM: A 0.10 M HCl solution
is used to simulate the acid
concentration of the stomach.
How many liters of “stomach
acid” react with a tablet
containing 0.10 g of magnesium
hydroxide?
• PLAN: Write a balanced equation
and convert the mass of Mg(OH)2
to moles. Use the mole ratio to
determine the moles of HCl, then
convert to volume using molarity.
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 Sample Problem 4.15 - Solution
• SOLUTION:

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 Sample Problem 4.16 – Problem and Plan
Finding the Concentration of Acid
from a Titration
• PROBLEM: A 50.00 mL sample of
H2SO4 is titrated with 0.1524 M
NaOH. The buret reads 0.55 mL
at the start and 33.87 mL at the
end point. Find the molarity of
the H2SO4 solution.
• PLAN: Write a balanced equation
for the reaction. Use the volume
of base to find mol OH-, then mol
H+ and finally M for the acid.

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 Sample Problem 4.16 - Solution
• SOLUTION:

volume of base = 33.87 mL – 0.55 mL = 33.32 mL

Since 1 mol of H2SO4 reacts with 2 mol NaOH, the amount of

H2SO4 is

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 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions
• Oxidation is the loss of electrons and reduction is the gain of
electrons.
• The oxidizing agent gains electrons and is reduced. And the
reducing agent loses electrons and is oxidized.
• A redox reaction involves electron transfer.
• Oxidation and reduction occur together.

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 The Redox Process in Compound Formation

Figure 4.16
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 Rules for Assigning an Oxidation Number (O.N.)
1. For an atom in its elemental form (Na, C, O2, Cl2, P4, etc.): O.N. = 0

2. For a monatomic ion: O.N. = ion charge (with the sign before the numeral)
3. The sum of O.N. values for the atoms in a molecule or formula unit of a compound equals
zero. The sum of O.N. values for the atoms in a polyatomic ion equals the ion’s charge.

Rules for Specific Atoms or Periodic Table

Groups
1. For Group 1A(1): O.N. = +1 in all compounds
2. For Group 2A(2): O.N. = +2 in all compounds
O.N. = +1 in combination with nonmetals
3. For hydrogen: O.N. = −1 in combination with metals and boron
(e.g. NaH)
4. For fluorine: O.N. = −1 in all compounds
O.N. = −1 in peroxides (e.g. H2O2)
5. For oxygen:
O.N. = −2 in all other compounds (except with F)

O.N. = −1 in combination with metals,

6. For Group 7A(17): nonmetals (except O),
and other halogens lower in the group

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 Sample Problem 4.17 – Problem and Plan
Determining the Oxidation Number of Each Element in a
Compound (or Ion)
• PROBLEM: Determine the oxidation number (O.N.) of each
element in these species:
(a) zinc chloride (b) sulfur trioxide (c) nitric acid (d) dichromate
ion
• PLAN: Use Table 4.4 to assign each atom an O.N.

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 Sample Problem 4.18 - Solution
• (a) ZnCl2. The O.N. of each chloride ion is −1 for a total of –2,
so the O.N. of Zn must be +2 since the sum of O.N.s must
equal zero for a compound.
• (b) SO3. The O.N. of each oxygen is −2 for a total of −6. The
O.N.s must add up to zero, so the O.N. of S is +6.
• (c) HNO3. The O.N. of H is +1 and the O.N. of each O is −2 for a
total of −6. Therefore, the O.N. of N is +5.
• (d) Cr2O72-. The sum of the O.N. values in a polyatomic ion
equals the ion's charge. The O.N. of each O is −2 so the total
for seven O atoms is −14. Therefore, each Cr must have an
O.N. of +6 in order for the sum of the O.N.s to equal the
charge of the ion.

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 Summary of Terminology for Redox Reactions

Figure 4.17

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 Balancing Redox Equations
1. Assign O.N.s to all atoms.
2. Identify the reactants that are oxidized and reduced.
3. Compute the numbers of electrons transferred, and draw tie-
lines from each reactant atom to the product atom to show
the change.
4. Multiply the numbers of electrons by factor(s) that make the
electrons lost equal to the electrons gained.
5. Use the factor(s) as balancing coefficients.
6. Complete the balancing by inspection

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 The redox titration of C2O42- with MnO4-

Figure 4.18
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 Sample Problem 4.19 - Problem
Finding the Amount of Reducing Agent by Titration
• PROBLEM: To measure the Ca2+ concentration in 1.00 mL of
blood Na2C2O4 solution is added precipitate the Ca2+ as CaC2O4.
The solid is dissolved in dilute H2SO4 to release C2O42-, and
2.05mL of 4.88x10-4 M KMnO4 is required to reach the end
point. The balanced equation is

• Calculate the amount (mol) of Ca2+ in 1.00 mL of blood.

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 Sample Problem 4.19 - Plan

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 Sample Problem 4.19 - Solution
• SOLUTION:

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 Elements in Redox Reactions
• Combination Reactions
– Two or more reactants combine to form a new compound:
– X+Y→Z

• Decomposition Reactions
– A single compound decomposes to form two or more products:
– Z→X+Y

• Displacement Reactions
– double displacement: AB + CD → AD + CB
– single displacement: X + YZ → XZ + Y

• Combustion
– the process of combining with O2

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 Combining Elements to Form an Ionic Compound

Figure 4.19
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 Decomposition of Mercury(II) oxide

Figure 4.20
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 Lithium Displaces H2 from Water

Figure 4.21
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 Displacement of H2 from Acid by Nickel

Figure 4.22

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 Copper Displacement of Silver

Figure 4.23
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 The Activity Series of the Metals

Figure 4.24
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 Sample Problem 4.20 – Problem and Plan
Identifying the Type of Redox Reaction
• PROBLEM: Classify each of the following redox reactions as a
combination, decomposition, or displacement reaction. Write
a balanced molecular equation for each, as well as total and
net ionic equations for part (c), and identify the oxidizing and
reducing agents:
(a) magnesium (s) + nitrogen (g) → magnesium nitride (s)
(b) hydrogen peroxide (l) → water (l) + oxygen gas
(c) aluminum (s) + lead(II) nitrate (aq) → aluminum nitrate (aq) + lead (s)

• PLAN: Combination reactions combine reactants,

decomposition reactions involve more products than
reactants, and displacement reactions have the same number
of reactants and products.
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 Sample Problem 4.20 - Solution
SOLUTION: (a) This is a combination reaction, since Mg and N2
combine. Mg is the reducing agent; N2 is the oxidizing agent.
(b) This is a decomposition reaction, since H2O2 breaks down.
H2O2 is both the reducing and the oxidizing agent.
(c) This is a displacement reaction, since Al displaces Pb2+ from
solution. Al is the reducing agent; Pb(NO3)2 is the oxidizing
agent.
The total ionic equation is:

The net ionic equation is:

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 The Equilibrium State

Figure 4.25
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