Static and Current Electricity

Static Electricity
• Static electricity is an imbalance of electric charges
within or on the surface of a material. The charge
remains until it is able to move away by means of
an electric current or electrical discharge.
 Static Electricity
Matter
• Matter is composed of atoms.

• Atoms are composed of three types of particles:

Protons - positive particle
Neutrons - neutral particle &
Electrons - negative particle

• An atom has NO charge because

they have the same amount of positive as well as
negative particles giving it a total charge of zero.
 Separating Charges
• Most materials are neutral.

Rubbing materials together can cause friction. This causes the movement of
electrons from one material to the other.

The only particle that moves from material to material is the electron.

Why doesn’t the proton or the neutron move?

• The transfer of electrons results in both of the materials becoming electrically

charged:

A. When extra electrons enter an object the object becomes negatively charged.

B. When electrons leave an object the object becomes positively charged.

 Separating Charges
• Rubbing a polythene rod with a dry cloth will cause
electrons to move from the cloth to the polythene rod.

The rod will become negatively charged because it has extra

electrons and the cloth will become positively charged
because it has fewer electrons than protons.

• The opposite will happen when a Perspex rod is rubbed

with a dry cloth. Explain what will happen using a
drawing.
 Forces Between Charged Objects
• Opposite charges attract.
• Like charges repel.
 Induced Charge
• A neutral object can become charged when a charged object is placed next to it.

• This process is referred to as charging by induction.

• What would happen if a Perspex rod was placed next to the sphere? Draw it
below.
Useful Applications of Static Charge
• Lightning Conductors

Tall buildings are fitted with

a thick copper strip
running along its length to
protect the building from
lightning strikes.
Useful Applications of Static Charge
• Electrostatic spraying

When vehicles are

spray painted
electrostatic charging
is taken advantage of.

The paint passes through the nozzle and becomes positively

charged due to friction.

The body of the car may become negatively charged via

induction due to the positive particles or by being connected
to a negative terminal. This attracts the positively charged
paint particles.
Useful Applications of Static Charge
• Photocopier
 Hazards of Static Charge
• Lightning

A cloud becomes charged due to friction between layers

of air and water molecules rising and falling within it.

The base of the cloud usually becomes negatively

charged while the top of the cloud becomes positive.

Sparks occur between opposite charges in the cloud.

The negative charge on the base of the cloud repels

electrons further into the ground below.
 Hazards of Static Charge
• When the potential difference
between the Earth and the cloud gets large
enough electrons and negatively charged ions rush from
the cloud to the ground.

The high speed particles crash into air molecules,

knocking electrons out of them and creating pairs of
oppositely charged ions.

This produces lightning which gives off heat and

eventually sound (thunder) due to rapid air expansion
and increasing air pressure which produces a shockwave.
 Hazards of Static Charge
• Charges from fabric in the seats of a vehicle.

This usually happens in dry regions or if the air in

the car is dry.

The person can become charged by friction and this

becomes a hazard if they are going to use a the
metal hose of the gasoline pump which can cause a
flash fire.

It is best to discharge oneself by touching the metal

body of the car.
 Hazards of Static Electricity
• Refuelling of vehicles:

Large electrical charges can build up on vehicles when they move due to air
resistance or other frictional forces which cause the transfer of electrons.

Car tyres can build up lots of friction which can cause explosions during
refuelling. Modern cars are now fitted with special tyres to avoid the
buildup of too much friction.

The refuelling of aircrafts, due to the movement of fuel, can cause a

buildup of charge which could lead to an explosion. This is overcome by
connecting the tank and the person who is refuelling the tank to a
conducting cable to allow the charge to dissipate safely.
 Hazards of Static Electricity
• Mills:

In grain or flour mills where there is a lot of

dry air and or powder in the air. Sparks can
cause explosions.

• Electronics:

Microprocessors and other integrated circuits

 Questions
1. A student walks along a nylon carpet and
then reaches out to a door handle. A tiny
spark is produced and the student feels an
electric shock. Explain why this happens.

2. Dust particles are uncharged but they

often stick to electrical equipment such as
television screens. Why does this happen?
Electric Fields
 Electric Fields
• An electric field is a region of space in which a charged
object will experience a force.

• The picture above shows the direction of electric fields

near a positive point charge and a negative point charge
 Field Lines
• Field lines may be used to represent the
strength and direction of electric (or
magnetic) fields.
 Field Lines
• Important properties of field lines are:

1. The lines never touch.

2. There is a longitudinal tension within a line.

3. There is a lateral repulsion between lines that are close to each

other. Field lines at the top and bottom of the plate bulge because
of lateral repulsion – these are not uniform.

4. The field is uniform where the lines are evenly spaced and
parallel.

5. Electric field lines are directed from positive charge to negative

charge.
Electric Field Lines Around and Between
Charged Bodies
 The Van de Graaff Generator
• Rubbing a rod with a cloth can only separate a small
amount of charge.

• A Van de Graaff generator

can be used to investigate
the effects of electric charge.

• To produce a larger build-up

of charge a Van de Graff (VdG)
generator can be used.
 How the Van de Graff Generator Works
• If you touch the (VdG) generator, all that electricity will go through your body giving you a
big shock. It can actually be dangerous.

You can be protected from the ground by standing on a piece of rubber or plastic.

We say plastic and rubber are insulators since charges can't travel through them very easily.
When you touch the generator now, the charges can't get to the ground.

You are now filled up with electrons. The electrons

don't like each other and are trying to get as far
away from each other as possible. Usually this makes
your hair stand up because it is filled with electrons
that are repelling each other.

• Below are links to videos illustrating how the Van de Graaff generator
works.

Explanation of how the Van de Graff generator works:

https://youtu.be/EsZQS2GOMQE

Explanation of why you don’t get shocked while sitting in a car:

Electric Current
 Electric Current
• The flow of electric charge is a current.

• The flow of charge is caused by a potential difference between two points.

• The unit of current is ampere, A.

• Quantity of charge is measured using a unit called the coulomb, C, where:

Q=It
Q = quantity of charge measured in units of coulombs, C

I = current measured in units of amperes, A

t = time measured in units of seconds, s

**1 C = 1 As (ampere second)

 Current in Circuits
• Electrical charges move around circuits in a
current.

• In an electrical circuit a current is used to

transfer energy to electrical devices.

• Current is the flow of electrons through a

conductor.
 Current in Circuits
• Current is never used up as it travels
throughout a circuit it just releases energy in
the components making up the parts of the
circuit as it passes through them.

It is the same mechanism blood uses in the

human circulatory system. Blood passes on
oxygen to all organs in the body to keep them
alive, energized and replenished.
Electrical Conductors
 What Conducts Electricity?
• Materials which conduct electricity are called
conductors.

• There are three types of conductors:

Metals (via mobile electrons)

Graphite (via mobile electrons)

Electrolytes (via mobile ions)

 What Conducts Electricity?

• Metals are composed of a lattice of positive

ions surrounded by a ‘sea’ of delocalized
electrons which are mobile. This allows for
the easy movement of electrons through it.
Why are Metals able to Conduct Electricity?
Why is Graphite able to Conduct Electricity

• Graphite is composed of only carbon atoms which have 4

valence electrons.

They are arranged in a hexagonal shape forming planes

which glide past each other.

Each carbon atom, within graphite, is bonded only 3 times

to its neighbouring carbon atom leaving 1 electron free.

This makes graphite, a non-metal, a conductor of

electricity because it contains mobile electrons just like in
a metal.
Why is Graphite able to Conduct Electricity
Another Perspective on Why Graphite is able
to Conduct Electricity
 What are Electrolytes and Why are they
able to Conduct Electricity
• Electrolytes can be aqueous salt solutions or molten salts.

• Once a salt is dissolved in water in actuality the salt breaks

apart into it its respective cation and anion.

• A cation is a positive particle and an anion is a negative

particle.

• It is these ions which allow for the free movement of electrons

through the solution via a process referred to as electrolysis.

• Electrolysis is the decomposition of an electrolyte via an

electric current.
Electrolysis
 Insulators
• Materials that do not conduct electricity are
referred to as insulators.

They do not contain any free electrons or

other charge carriers making it difficult for
current to flow through them.
 Semi-Conductors
• Semiconductors are materials which lie between
conductors and insulators.

• Silicon is a semiconductor and it is able to conduct

electricity via human manipulation. Atoms of another
semiconductor, example germanium, are added to it.
This is a process called doping.

• There are two types of doping: N-doping and P-

doping where N means negative and P means positive.
 Semi-Conductors

• Semiconductors are used in diodes and

transistors.
 Electrical Energy and Transformations
• In circuits the positive terminal of a battery or power
supply is at higher potential than the negative terminal.

• The voltage produced by an electrical power source is

called the electromotive force, e.m.f.

• The voltage across an electrical component is called the

potential difference, p.d.

• Both are measured in volts and are often referred to as

voltages.
 Electrical Energy and Transformations
• Potential difference is the cause of the movement of charge.

• In electricity the energy change depends on the size of the charge

and the potential difference it moves through.

• Potential difference, p.d., is measured in voltage, V.

• Potential difference = energy transferred × charge

OR

V=EQ
 Electrical Power
• The power of an electrical device is the
rate at which it transfers energy.

• Electrical power is measured in watts, W,

where:

Power = Current × Voltage or P = I V

and If V = EQ where Q = I t then V = E I t

• When transposing I V = E t
 Electrical Transformations
• Electrical energy can be transformed in many useful ways.

For example:

A light bulb
• Mechanical energy - switch is turned on
• Electrical energy - circuit is completed in the switch to
allow the flow of electrons
• Light energy - the bulb gives off light
• Heat energy - the bulb generates heat
• Sound energy - the mechanisms of the bulb starts to buzz
 Conversion of Energy
• Scientists have looked at lots of energy
changes, like lighting a bulb, and have
carefully measured the total energy before
and after the change.

They find that:

the total energy before a change = the total energy after a

change.
 Examples of Energy Conversions
• Watching Television
When you watch TV, the energy change may
be:

electrical  light energy + sound energy + heat energy

• Shining a Torch/Flashlight
These are the energy changes which take
place in a torch:
chemical energy (cells)  electrical energy (wires)  heat + light from the lamp
 Examples of Energy Conversions
• Using Solar Panels
Solar panels use energy radiated directly from the
sun to heat the water that circulates through the
black panels you see on some roofs:
solar energy (SUN)  heat energy stored in water inside the solar panel system

• A Nuclear Power Station

Here the energy changes in a nuclear power station
that generated electricity:
nuclear energy  heat energy in steam  kinetic energy of turbines in generator 
electrical energy
 Appliances in the Home
• The appliances we use at home are not 100 %
efficient and so they waste energy via
conversion of energy.
Appliance Useful Energy Wasted Energy

Fan Kinetic _______ and Heat

Cake Mixer Kinetic Sound and Heat

Light Bulb __________ __________

 Conservation of Energy
• The Conservation of Energy states:

Energy is neither created nor destroyed it

is transferred from one form to another.

• Most of the production of electricity relies on burning fossil

fuels.

These fuels are only available in limited quantities and so

reducing their use is important.

How can we conserve some of these resources?

Circuitry
 Simple Circuits and Components
• There are TWO types of simple circuits:

Series - one pathway for current to flow,

current is the same in all components

Parallel - different pathways for current to

flow, current is not the same in all
components
Comparing Series and Parallel Circuits
 Combination Circuitry is Used to Wire a
House
• It is better to wire a house using a
combination of series and parallel circuits
because if a light blows or if an appliance
stops working the other appliances in the
household will continue to work.

• If a house is wired using only series circuits

what would happen?
 Advantages of Parallel Connection of
Domestic Appliances
• Appliances can be switched on and off without
affecting each other.

If they were connected in series switching off

one appliance would cause all to turn off.

• Most people rely on electrical appliances.

However, they have to pay for the electrical
energy they use.
 Advantages of Parallel Connection of
Domestic Appliances
• Electrical boards measure energy
consumption using electricity
meters in homes.

The unit of energy used is call a

kilowatt-hour (kWh).
 Advantages of Parallel Connection of
Domestic Appliances
• Electricity meters can either be analogue
display (where the dials rotate for each digit)
or they can be digital display (where numbers
change and can be read directly)
 How are Meters Read?
• Every month the electricity supplier sends
someone to read the meter.

The amount of kilowatts used for the month is

then recorded and you are charged
accordingly.

• In addition to the current you used, some

companies make you pay a standing charge
even if you did not use any electricity.
 How are Meters Read?
• Digital meters are modern meters which can be read directly.

• An analogue meter has dials. Each dial represents one digit of the present
reading. The dials move both clockwise and counter clockwise.

1. The dials are read from right to left and the numbers are written in the
same order.

2. When the hand on any dial is between two numbers the smaller
number is read.

3. When the pointer seems to be directly on a number write that

number down.

4. When the number is between 0 and 9, 0 is considered as 10 hence 9

should be written down.

5. When the number is between 0 and 1, 0 should be written down.

Reading Analogue Meters
Reading Analogue Meters
Calculating Use of Electrical Energy
• In order to determine the amount of electrical
energy used, subtract the previous reading
from the present reading to determine your
usage.

The total cost is calculated based on the cost

of one unit.
 Calculating Use of Electrical Energy
• An example of how to read the meters.

Meter reading the week before: 46372

Meter reading the week before: 46492

1. How many units of electrical energy have been used for the week?
(46492 – 46372) = 120 kWh ~ 120 units

What is the total cost if 1 unit is billed at 30 cents?

(120 units × 0.30 c) = $ 36
Calculating Use of Electrical Energy
• The power rating of the appliance and the time frame in which it
is used are needed in order to find out the electrical energy
used.

• If a light bulb of 15 W is used for 2 hours then the amount of

electrical energy used is:

first convert 15 W to kW by dividing by 1000 then multiply by

the amount of hours

0.015 kW × 2 h = 0.03 kWh

kWh may also be referred to as units. The kilowatt-hour

(kWh) is the unit of energy shown on electricity bills and
 Converting between kW  W and visa versa
W  kW
• To go from kW  W, multiply by 1000
• To go from W  kW, divide by 1000

Try the following:

a. 2 kW = _______ W
b. 45 kW = _______ W
c. 780 kW = ______ W
d. 6000 W = _______ kW
e. 903 W = ________kW
Calculating the Cost of Electrical Energy
• A consumer used 100 units (kWh) of electricity in
a month.

The first 50 units were charged on a Block 1 tariff

of 60 cents per kWh, and the next 50 units were
Block 2 at 70 cents per kWh. The fuel surcharge
was 40 cents per kWh used.

What did the consumer pay for their electricity?

 Calculating the Cost of Electrical Energy
• Block 1 Charge : 0.60 c × 50 units = $ 30

• Block 2 Charge : 0.70 c × 50 units = $ 35

• Fuel Surcharge : 0.40 c × 100 units = $ 40

• Cost of electricity bill = $ 30 + $ 35 + $ 40 = $105

Calculating the Cost of Electrical Energy
• A consumer used 200 units (kWh) of electricity in a
month.

50 units were charged on a Block 1 tariff of 60

cents per kWh, and the next 150 were Block 2,
charged at 70 cents per kWh.

The fuel surcharge was 40 cents per kWh used.

What was the total electricity bill?

 Calculating the Cost of Electrical Energy
• Block 1 Charge : 0.60 c × 50 units = $ 30

• Block 2 Charge : 0.70 c × 150 units = $ 105

• Fuel Surcharge : 0.40 c × 200 units = $ 80

• Cost of electricity bill

= $ 30 + $ 105 + $ 80 = $ 215
 How Electrons Carry Energy
• When an electron passes
through a cell or a power
source it gains energy.

This energy, gained by the

electrons, is transferred to
the components making up
the circuit, example bulbs, radios etc.

The electron loses all of the energy it gained from the cell or
power source and goes back to its original energy before it
entered it.

The whole process is started over again once the electron enters
the cell or power source again.
 Human Circulatory System
• The way an electron transfers
energy is synonymous to the way
blood, in the human body, transfers
oxygen to all of the organs.

• Blood picks up oxygen in the lungs

while at the same time releasing
carbon dioxide from the body.

• Oxygen is used by the body to replenish the

 Symbols in Circuitry

• …..more symbols can be viewed via the physics CSEC study guides.
Comparing Series and Parallel Circuits

Series Parallel

The current has only one The current has many pathways
pathway
Current is the same in all of the Current is not the same in all of
components that make up the the components that make up
circuit the circuit
Potential difference or voltage is Potential difference or voltage is
not the same the same
Cells and Batteries
 Cells & Batteries
• The electromotive force (e.m.f.) required to drive a
current can be produced by chemical reactions
between acids and metals.

• Each cell has two terminals or electrodes:

One is POSITIVE and the other is NEGATIVE

• Cells are restricted in the size of the current they

can provide by their internal resistances which are
due to their physical and chemical composition.
 Typical Cell
• A typical cell is a primary cell.
 Car Battery
• Car batteries are secondary cells.
 Primary and Secondary Cells
Primary cells Secondary cells

Most common type of primary cell is the Most common type of secondary cell is
zinc-carbon cell the lead-acid cell

The chemical reaction which produces the The chemical reaction which produces the
e.m.f. cannot be reversed e.m.f. can be reversed by applying a
potential difference in the opposite
direction to the cell.
They cannot be recharged or reused They can be recharged and reused

An e.m.f. of 1.5 V is produced when the An e.m.f. of 2.0 V is produced when a

negative zinc case, positive carbon rod reaction occurs between the negative lead
and aluminum chloride paste reacts plates and the positive lead oxide plates
and dilute sulphuric acid.
They have high internal resistance They have very low resistance and can
therefore it can not produce very large provide very large currents
currents, maximum being 1 A.

Once used, chemical reactions continue to Chemical reactions only take place when
take place even when they are not in use. in use so they last longer
Over time they become useless.
Resistance
 Resistance
• Resistance is a measure of the opposition
provided to an electrical current; it is the ratio
of the pd across a conductor to the current
through it.

• When electrons flow through a conductor,

they are obstructed by vibrating atoms in their
paths. These atoms therefore decrease the
rate of flow of the electrons and hence the
current.
 Using Electrical Meters
• Electrical meters are used to
measure both current and potential
difference but the meters must be
placed carefully in order to operate
correctly.
 Typical Circuit Set Up Using Electrical
Meters

• The diagram above illustrates how a voltmeter (in parallel with the
component being tested) and an ammeter (in series) is placed within a
 Resistance
• All components have a resistance
to a current.

• Metal wires have low resistance

while glass rods have a high
resistance to current.
Comparing and Ammeter to a Voltmeter

Ammeter Voltmeter

Used to measure the current at a Used to measure the potential

point in a circuit difference between two points in
the circuit

It is placed in series with the other It is placed in parallel with the

components, placing the meter in components that is measuring the
this position reduces the current potential difference across

Has very low resistance to allow Has very high resistance so that
the easy passage of current almost no current will pass through
them
 Calculating Resistance

•R = V÷I

• The unit for Resistance is the

ohm, Ω
 Ohmic Conductors
• A simple metal wire will have a constant resistance as long
as its physical properties and conditions do not change.

• The relationship was discovered by Georg Ohm and is called

Ohm’s law:

The current through a

conductor is directly
proportional to the
potential difference
across it

• The constant of proportionality is RESISTANCE.

 Ohmic Conductors
• Materials which obey Ohm’s law, have
constant resistance, they are called ohmic
conductors.

• If a material is an ohmic conductor, a graph of

I against V, or V against I, is a straight line
through the origin.

• In some materials, resistance is NOT constant,

this behaviour is classified as non-ohmic.
 Ohmic Conductors
• Metal wires conduct best when they are short
and fat. They are ohmic conductors.
 Ohmic Conductors
• Filament lamps
conduct best when
current passing
through them is
low. If the current
is increased the
filament will get very
hot increasing resistance to the current passing
through it. Filament lamps behave as ohmic
conductors once the wire does not get too hot.
 Ohmic Conductors
• Ionic solutions or
electrolytes have
a higher resistance
to current than
metals. The more
concentrated the
electrolyte the less resistance there is to
current passing through it. Instead of
electrons the charge carriers are ions present
in the electrolytic solution.
 Ohmic Conductors
• In semiconductor
diodes are not
ohmic conductors.

When a negative voltage

is applied to it the diode
experiences a very high
resistance so very little
current passes through it
and is said to be in reversed biased.

In forward biased the semiconductor diode has even

higher resistance and almost no current passes through it.
 Where, How and Why are Resistors used

• Resistors are used within circuits to limit the

amount of current entering components in
order to protect them.

• Variable resistors may be used instead of

normal resistors because their resistance can
be altered by turning a dial or moving a sliding
contact.
 Types of Resistors
Types of resistors Description Uses

Light-dependent Have low Can be used to

resistance in bright build light sensors
light and very high and switch on
resistance in low lighting systems
light automatically when
it gets dark
Thermistor Their resistance Can we used to
changes depending control heating or
on temperature cooling systems
Calculating Resistance in Series and Parallel
Circuits
• To calculate the total resistance of resistors in
series simply add:
Rs = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 …

• To calculate the total resistance in parallel

simply use the following equation:
1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 ...
Direct and Alternating Current
 Direct and Alternating Current
Direct current (d.c.) Alternating current
(a.c.)
Produced via cells and Produced via a generator
batteries
Travels in one direction Reverses its direction
(from positive to rapidly many times each
negative) second

Has a fixed size Its size varies

Direct and Alternating Current
 Frequency
• Frequency = 1 ÷ time it takes for one
complete oscillation (T)

• Frequency is measured in Hertz, abbreviated

as Hz, or 1/s which is the same as s-1.
 Digital Oscilloscope
• Cathode-ray oscilloscopes are expensive and
can be difficult to operate

• Most waveform analysis is now carried out

using digital oscilloscopes which can be
connected directly to a computer.
Plugs and Sockets
 Mains Electricity in the Caribbean
• Mains electricity is supplied as alternating
current.

• Mains supply is usually noisy due to

interference from other electrical devices.
Mains supply in some Caribbean islands

Island Voltage (V) Frequency (Hz)

Barbados 115 50

Cuba 110 60

Jamaica 110 or 220 50

St. Kitts and Nevis 110 or 230 60

St. Martin 120 or 230 50

Trinidad and Tobago 115 50

The mains supply voltage and frequency varies from island to island in the Caribbean,
as illustrated above, for historical reasons.
 Ring Mains
• An electrical configuration called a ring main is
used as the basis for the connection of domestic
power sockets.

• Two or three wires are used in the ring main and

they are thick enough to provide a current to
several devices at once without overheating.
 The Wires of the Ring Mains
Type of Colour of Description
wire wire
Live Brown Provides the power and operates at a high voltage

Neutral Blue Completes the circuit, allowing the current to flow

in a closed circuit
Earth Green & Grounds the circuit to avoid severe shocks or even
Yellow electrocution
An illustration of the Wires Present in the
Ring Mains
An illustration of how a three pin plug is
wired
 Why don’t birds get electrocuted but
humans do if they perch on electrical lines?

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=rN3QhtnlCSw
 Plugs and Sockets
• In the Caribbean there are two main plugs and
sockets used and these are referred to as Type
A and Type B.

• Type A plugs have only two pins which

connect to the live and neutral wires.

• Type B plugs have three pins. The additional

pin is connected to the earth wire.
 Plugs and Sockets
• A type A plug should not be inserted into a type B socket

• What would happen if a 110 V device is connected to a 220 V device?

• What would happen if a 220 V device is connected to a 110 V device?

• Connecting a device designed to operate with a 50 Hz supply to a 60

Hz supply, or the reverse, is also likely to damage the device as its
electrical components will not function correctly

• Why shouldn’t you change the plug on an electrical device from a

type B to a type A?

• What advantages does a ring main provide?

 Mains Safety
• Mains electricity is dangerous. It can kill you!

• Protective devices are used to reduce harm to

you or the device being used.
Table showing some Protective Devices
Protective devices Description Effectiveness
Fuses Prevents current overload in Does its job but has to be
a device. It also prevents replaced once it has been
fires from starting. Its wire is used
so thin that it melts when too
much current passes through
it.

Circuit breakers Prevent current overload in a It does its job faster than a
device. It uses an fuse, it is more sensitive and
electromagnet to break the does not have to be replaced
circuit when the current is too it only has to be reset.
large.

The Earth wire The wire provides a low Quite effective. Avoids
resistance route for the shocks and or electrocution if
current to pass to Earth the live wire become loose
therefore the current will not and defective.
pass through the user
Various Protective Devices
 What if there were NO Earth Wire
• If the case is metal and
is in contact with the live
wire, a user can receive a
fatal shock on touching it.

• A fuse alone would not help

since touching would simply re-complete the circuit...the
user being the path of least resistance for the current
hence electrocution or shock.

• Some devices automatically protect the user because

they are made from insulating materials such as plastic.
Alternating and Direct Current
Conversion of alternating to direct current

• Alternating current is much easier to produce

from the generators in power stations.

• Some devices, including computers, require

current at very steady voltage levels to
operate correctly.
 Rectification
• The process of converting an alternating current
to a direct current is called rectification.

• Rectification relies on the properties of diodes.

• The most common function of a diode is to allow

an electric current to pass in one direction (called
the diode's forward direction), while blocking
current in the opposite direction (the reverse
direction).
Diagram of a Diode
 Half-wave Rectification
• The current provided by half-wave rectification
is direct in the sense that it is only in one
direction.

• Applying a diode to obtain direct current is

inefficient since there are gaps in the flow of
current. To help with this a capacitor is used.
 Capacitors
• A capacitor is a device which stores charge for a short
period of time. Adding it on to the simple half-wave
rectifier (diode) produces a smoothed direct current.

• When the voltage is rising and there is a current in the load

some charge will be stored on the capacitor. When there is
low voltage causing low current load the capacitor is able
to release charge from its plates and provide a current. The
capacitor provides continuity of current when a diode is
being used making their use together more efficient.
 Full-wave Rectification
• In half-wave rectification you can see that only half of the
alternating current is actually producing a useful direct current.

• A more complicated circuit involving four diodes can be used to

produce a positive potential difference even when the
alternating supply is producing a negative voltage.

• This gives full-wave rectification which supplies a much steadier

d.c. supply.

Smoothed full-wave rectification

Logic Circuits
 Logic Gates
• Binary numbers can be represented physically in a
number of ways.

In electronics they are represented as two voltage

levels:

• High which represents the digit 1 and is called

logic 1

• Low which represents the digit 0 and is called

logic 0
 Logic Gates
• A logic gate is an electronic component which processes a
binary input and produces a binary output based on a set of
rules.

• At this level below are the five logic gates you are expected
to learn:
 Truth Tables
• Truth tables show the output states of a logic
gate for all of the possible inputs to the gate.

• These allow us to easily determine what the

output would be when the gates are
connected to input sources.
 Logic gates and their truth tables
OR gate outputs may be AND gate outputs
remembered like this: may be remembered
A. nothing (0) from like this:
Gate Function INPUT A INPUT B OUTPUT
nothing (0) gives you A. 0 multiplied by 0 = 0 • High voltage = 1
• Low voltage = 0
nothing (0).
B. 0 multiplied by 1 = 0 OR OUTPUT = 1 0 0 0
If 0 1 1
B. Something (1) from A OR B = 1 1 0 1
nothing (0) gives you C. 1 multiplied by 0 = 0 1 1 1

something (1). AND OUTPUT = 1 0 0

D. 1 multiplied by 1 = 1 If 0 1
A AND B = 1 1 0
C. Nothing (0) from 1 1
something (1) gives
you something (1). The OR gate can NOR OUTPUT = 0 0 0
If 0 1
be seen as an addition A OR B = 1 1 0

D. Something (1) from gate while the AND 1 1

something (1) gives gate can be seen as

NAND OUTPUT = 0 0 0
you something (1). a multiplier gate. If 0 1
A AND B = 1 1 0
1 1

NOR gates would give NOT OUTPUT = 1 0 - 1

the opposite response. If INPUT = 0 1 - 0

For example:
OUTPUT = 0
nothing (0) from If INPUT = 1
nothing (0) will NOT give
you nothing (0) but will
give you something (1).
 Combining Logic Gates
• Logic gates by themselves are limited in their use.

However, when they are combined together they can be

used to process information and cause actions to be taken.

To work out the output for any collection of gates draw up a

truth table representing all of the possible input
combinations. For each set of inputs in turn work your way
through the logic combinations and find the output. Keep
going until you have found the outputs for all of the
possible input combinations.
Logic Sensors
 Impact of Electronic and Technological
Advances in Society
• Pros:

A. Businesses get a competitive edge when they use advanced technologies.

B. The global pooling of information increases the rate of research and

development.

C. Improved transport through airplanes and trains, as well as better

communicating devices such as cell phones and computers, has led to more
efficient business transactions and to an increase in social contact.

D. Better machinery leads to increased and improved productivity.

E. Electronic banking has facilitated the process of financial transactions.

 Impact of Electronic and Technological
Advances in Society
• Cons:

A. Incorrect information is common on the internet.

B. Individuals can be addicted to social networking to such an extent

that their productivity decreases.

C. Excessive virtual communication may lead to lack of real

communication and to a fall in social skills.

D. Exposure to movies with immoral sexual content and violence can

eventually lead to some persons accepting these acts as the norm.

E. Hackers can intrude on computers and manipulate information such

as bank accounts.
 Comprehension
• 1. What is meant by half-wave rectification?

• 2. Describe how ac can be converted to dc using half-wave

rectification.

• 3. Sketch graphs to show how each of the following vary

with time:
a) domestic supply ac voltage
b) domestic supply ac voltage converted to dc by a diode
c) voltage output from a battery

• 4. Draw TRUTH TABLES for each of the following logic gates:

a. AND b. OR c. NAND d. NOT
 Comprehension
• 5. A warning light is to glow on a motor cycle
if the key is placed in the ignition (logic 1)
while either the tyre pressure is below 80 PSI
(logic 1) or the oil level is low (logic 1). The
warning light glows when logic 1 is input to it.

Draw a truth table and a circuit appropriate to

this application.
Magnetic Energy
 Magnetism
• Magnetism is the force that attracts certain
materials such as iron, nickel and cobalt.

• A magnetic field is the space around a magnet

where its magnetic effects can be felt.
 Earth as a Magnet
• The Earth is a large but weak magnet.

• If a bar magnet is freely suspended it aligns

itself in the direction of the Earth’s magnetic
field.
 Earth as a Magnet
• The North Pole of Earth should be referred to
as the North Seeking Pole since it is actually a
South Pole attracting the North Pole of the
magnet in a compass. Likewise for what is
referred to as the South Pole of the Earth.

• The South Pole of the Earth should be referred

to as the South-seeking Pole since it is actually
a North Pole attracting the South Pole of the
magnet in a compass.
 Magnetic Poles
• The poles on a magnet are the areas where its
magnetic strength is strongest.

• A magnet is dipolar which means that it has

two poles.
 Laws of Magnetism
• The laws of magnetism are:

1. Like poles repel

2. Unlike poles attract

 Magnetic Materials
• A magnetic material is a material which is
attracted to a magnet or which can be
magnetized.

Cobalt

Nickel

Iron
 Magnetic Materials
• Nickel, Iron and Cobalt are the ONLY naturally
occurring magnetic materials.

• Other magnetic materials are alloys such as

steel which is a mixture of iron and carbon.

• Magnets come in a variety of shapes and sizes:

bar, horse shoe, U shaped and ringed.
 Types of Magnets
• There are two types of magnets:

Permanent

and
Steel is a permanent magnet

Temporary

Iron is a temporary magnet

 Types of Magnets
• Iron and mumetal are classed as soft magnetic
materials and are used to make temporary
magnets. They are easy to magnetise but do not
retain magnetism well.

• Steel is classed as a hard magnetic material. It is

more difficult to magnetise but it will retain its
magnetism for longer. It is used to make
permanent magnets. Magnadur magnets are also
permanent.
 Comparing Permanent and Temporary
Magnets
Permanent Magnets Temporary Magnets
A permanent magnet will remain magnetized A temporary magnet loses its magnetic
even after the cause of magnetizing is properties when the cause of magnetizing is
discontinued discontinued

Its strength is constant Its strength is varied

Steel is used to make permanent magnets Iron is used to make temporary magnets

Clasps for jewelry, compasses, credit cards Cranes, electric guitars, door bells,
(the black metallic strip at the back), doors of microphones, generators, in industry to lift
refrigerators and dishwashers, ornamental iron and steel road and sheets, motors, loud
articles attachable to refrigerators etc. speakers, medicine for MRI (magnetic
resonance imaging), telephones, television
and computer monitors,
 Induction of Magnetism
• Magnetism may be induced in some metals by
a process called induction.

• Magnetic induction is the process by which

magnetic properties are transferred from one
body to another without physical contact.
 Induction of Magnetism
• Induction may involve stroking or the
application of a current to a metal.

Single Stroking

Application
of Current

Double Stroking
 Induction of Magnetism
• Magnets contain domains/dipoles.

• In magnetized metals the domains/dipoles are

aligned.
 Induction of Magnetism
• In metals that are un-magnetized the tiny
magnets referred to as domains/dipoles are
NOT aligned.
 Induction of Magnetism
• Inducing magnetism in un-magnetized metals
causes the domains to align making the metal
become magnetic.
 Electromagnet
• An electromagnet is made by passing an
electric current through a coil of wire.
 Electromagnets
• The strength of an electromagnet is increased
by:

a. Increasing the amount of current being

passed through the coil

b. Increasing the number of turns of the coil

around it and by

c. Using a magnetic core inside of the coil

 Testing for Magnetism
• How would you test a metal to determine if it is a
permanent magnet?

• A permanent magnet causes repulsion with one pole when

both poles are, in turn, brought near to a suspended magnet.

• An unmagnetized magnet material would give attraction with

both poles of the suspended magnet.

• Repulsion is the only sure test for a magnet.

 Comprehension
• Why are electromagnets more commonly
used than permanent magnets?

• How may electromagnets be made stronger?

• Where are electromagnets used?

Current and Magnetic Fields
 Currents and Magnetic Fields
• The charges moving in a wire produce a magnetic
field around the wire.

• Current can be made to pass perpendicularly

through a sheet of horizontal card/paper. Using
iron filings or the compass method they will show
that there is a circular field around the wire.

• To determine which way the field lines loop you

can use the ‘right-hand grip rule’.
• What if the current was going in the opposite direction
determine the direction of the field line using the right hand
 Solenoids
• The magnetic field around a single wire is not
strong and so coils of wire called solenoids are
used.

One end of the coil acts as a north pole and

other acts as a south pole.
 Solenoids
• To find the direction of the field from the direction of the
current, we can use our right hand again.

Your fingers follow the direction of the current curving

around the coil.

Your thumb will point in the direction of the magnetic field

- NORTHWARDS.
 Solenoids
• The strength of a magnetic field produced by a
solenoid may be increased by:

1. Using more loops (turns) of wire

2. Increasing the current in the wire

3. Placing an iron core inside the solenoid (this

has the effect of concentrating the field lines
creating a strong field at the end of the core)
 Solenoids
• Powerful electromagnets can be produced by
using all of these measures.

• An electromagnet
can be made by
wrapping a wire
multiple times
around a nail which is
connected to a
power source.
Solenoids
 Forces from the Magnetic Field
• When a wire carries a current there will be a magnetic field
surrounding the wire.

• If the wire is placed inside the magnetic field produced by a

permanent magnet then the two magnetic fields will interact
with each other.

• A force will act on the wire

and the permanent magnet.
This will happen provided
that the wires are not placed
parallel to the magnetic field
lines. This is called the
 What Affects the Strength of a Magnetic
Field
• The size of the force acting on the wire will depend
on the following:

1. The current in the wire: the larger the current

the stronger the magnetic field

2. The strength of the magnetic field from the

permanent magnets

3. The length of the wire inside the permanent

magnet’s field. The force will be greater the longer
 Using Flemming’s Left Hand Rule
• It can be difficult to work out the direction of
the force acting on a wire in a magnetic field.

• Fleming’s left-hand rule (also known as the

motor rule) lets us find the direction of the
force acting on the wire when we know the
direction of the current and the magnetic
field.
Remember to Use Your Left Hand When a
Motor is Involved!
 Comprehension
• Using Fleming’s left hand rule answer the following
question:

The below shows a current-carrying wire. A

magnetic field is acting into the paper. In which
direction is the force acting on the wire?

In this question the magnetic field is going into this

paper.
Direction of Current
• It is the cutting of the magnetic field lines of force
by the wire which places a force on the electrons
within the wire which causes an induced current.
 Investigating Induction
• Pushing the magnet (north pole
first) into the solenoid
so that the magnetic field lines
pass through the loops
of wire induces a current in the
wire.

• Pulling out the magnet induces a

current in the opposite
direction.

• Reversing the direction of the magnet (pushing in the

south pole) will also reverse the direction of the current.
 Investigating Induction
• The faster the magnet is moving
relative to the coil the greater the
current. This shows that it is the
rate that the wire moves through
the field lines that is the cause of
the increased current.

• The more loops of wire in the solenoid

the greater the induced current.

• The stronger the magnet the larger the induced current is.

• Leaving the magnet inside the coil does not produce a current. There is
no relative movement between the magnet and the conductor so no
field lines are being cut.
 Investigating Induction
• The current induced in the coil will
change direction as the magnet is
moved in and out of the coil
(an alternating current).

• To determine the direction of the

current in a solenoid as the magnet
moves the following solenoid rule is used:

The current induced in a solenoid always acts in such a direction

as to oppose the change that causes it.

• Therefore when the north end of the magnet is pushed into the
coil that end of the coil acts as a north pole but when the magnet
D.C. Motor and A.C. Generator
 Direct Current Motor
• A direct current motor uses the motor effect
to exert a force on a current-carrying wire.

• The motor is designed to cause a coil of wire

to rotate.
Direct Current Motor
 Direct Current Motor
• When the coil has rotated a half-turn the commutator will
reverse the current in the coil. This means that the direction
of the force on the coil will still cause the left side to be
pushed upwards while the right side is pushed downwards.

• As the force remains in the same direction the coil continues

to spin, producing a turning moment which can be used to do
work.

• What would happen if the battery is turned in the opposite

direction?
 Direct Current Motor
• Electrical motors are used in a wide range of
devices:
1. Fans
2. Cars
3. Toy planes etc.

• A d.c. motor transfers electrical energy into

kinetic energy using the motor effect it uses a
current-carrying coil of wire which is made to
rotate inside a magnetic field.
 Alternating Current Generators
• Alternating current generators use induction
to produce a current in a wire by rotating a
coil inside a magnetic field.

They are similar to direct current motors

physically however kinetic energy is
transformed into electrical energy.
Alternating Current Generators
 Alternating Current Generators
• During a full rotation the coil will produce an alternating
e.m.f. as shown in the figure below.

When the coil is horizontal it cuts field lines at a high rate

and a large e.m.f. is produced.

When the coil is vertical it does not cut field lines and so no
e.m.f. is induced.
 Alternating Current Generators
• If the coil in an a.c. generator is rotated faster
a larger e.m.f. is produced. It will also increase
the frequency of the a.c. supply.

• Some power station generators are spun 50

times each second providing a frequency of 50
Hz while others are spun 60 times each
second _________ Hz.
 Summary
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule Fleming’s Right Hand Rule

Used when dealing with Motors Used when dealing with Generators or
Dynamos
In problems the direction of current and In problems the direction of force/motion
magnetic fields are given and magnetic fields are given
Force/Direction of motion of the wire is to Direction of Induced Current in the wire is
be derived to be derived
Transformers
 Transformers
• The voltage of an alternating current can be
changed with a device called a transformer.

• The transformer also changes the

size of the current.

• When electrical energy is transmitted over long

distances it is best to do so at HIGH voltage and
LOW current. Why?
 Transformers
• A transformer consists of two coils of wire
wrapped around opposite arms of a laminated
iron core as shown below.

The primary coils are the input coils and the

secondary coils are the output coils.
 Transformers
• A transformer can not work with direct
current because it works by using changes in
magnetic fields.

• Transformer equation: Vs/Vp = Ns/Np = Ip/Is

Transformers