MEMORY & COGNITION

SESSION 11 & 12
INSTRUCTIONS
●05 seconds to view each picture and write your answer

●Full Name, why they are famous eg: dancer, footballer…

●NO TALKING

●NO SAYING ANSWER OUT LOUD

1. Ram Nath Kovind : Former President of India
2. Robin Williams : Actor
3. Lisa Kudrow : Actor
4. Kangana Ranaut : Actor
5. Meghan Trainor : Musician
6. Chris Martin : Musician
7. Imran Khan : Actor
8. Asha Bhosle : Musician
9. Emmanuel Macron : President of France
10.Prince George : Son of William and Catherine
MEMORY
An active system that receives information
from the senses, organizes it as it stores it away,
and then retrieves the information from storage.

Student Discussion -
Is the processes for learning the same as the processes for
Memory?
PROCESSES OF MEMORY
Encoding : The Keyboard
- Initially re-coded in a form usable to memory
- Failure to recall : Not exposed to them or not stored in a meaningful
way
Storage : The Hard Disk
- Maintenance/Retention of information
- Failure to recall : Not adequately rehearsed/stored
Retrieval : The screen
-Information brought to awareness and used
ENCODING
Role of Attention
- Focusing awareness on a narrow situation
- What would happen if it was equally divided?
- Filter
- Where is the filter put to use? Early stage (sensory)
or later stage (after processing meaning?
- Cocktail Party Effect
- Cognitive Load - Low Load (Later) , High Load
(Early)
●Divided Attention - Poor Memory
Performance

●One Attention-Consuming Task

●Switching back and forth

●Eg. Driving and Using Cell-phone

LEVELS OF PROCESSING – CRAIK
& LOCKHART (1972)
1. Structural
2. Phonemic
3. Semantic
Level 1: Shallow, physical aspects
Level 2 : Intermediate, context of word, sound
Level 3 : Deep, wider context, draw associations

Levels-of-processing theory proposes that deeper levels

of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes.
ENRICHING CODING
Elaboration – Making Associations

Visual Imagery – Creating visual images (Concrete v/s Abstract)

-High-Imagery v/s Low Imagery – Paivio, Smythe and Yuille

(1968)

-Dual Coding – Semantic and Visual codes

Self-Referent Encoding – Personal Meaning (Elaboration and

Organization)
STORAGE
●Aristotle & Plato – Image on wax
●Modern Theories – Computer, Information processing
●Atkinson & Shiffrin – Sensory, Short-term, Long -term
THREE SYSTEMS OF
MEMORY
Sensory Memory :Exact replica of
stimulus: Lasts for a fraction of a second
Short Term Memory : Stored according
to meaning: Lasts for 15-25 seconds
Long term Memory : Relatively
permanent
SENSORY MEMORY
●Aids in initiating a response

●Information to our senses

Iconic Memory : Visual Memories

Echoic Memory : Auditory memories

●Precision high; Duration short

SHORT TERM MEMORY
Limited Store : Unrehearsed
information

George Miller

Decay v/s Interference

Capacity 7 or – 2 items

Chunking – Meaningful chunks -

more holding capacity

Lost in 15-20 seconds

●9
●6
●2
●0
●5
●0
●0
●3
●8
●1
LONG TERM MEMORY

●Almost unlimited memory

●Evidence for LTM – Brain damage, Penfield – ESB

(Temporal Lobe)

●Declarative

●Procedural
DECLARATIVE
●Factual Information
●Explicit Memory
●Two types : Episodic and Semantic
EPISODIC
●Occur in a particular Time/Place
●Detailed information
●Example : Your interview at IIFT
Your best vacation
Your farewell/graduation
SEMANTIC
●General information/facts about
the world
●SORRY
PROCEDURAL MEMORY
●Implicit Memory
●Can perform , not verbalize
●How to perform
●Example – Cycling, playing an
instrument, tying a shoelace
EXPLICIT & IMPLICIT
MEMORY
●Explicit – Conscious recollection of memories
- Eg – Episodic/ Semantic
Implicit – Not consciously aware of but affect
behaviour
●Eg- automatic tasks
●Priming : Exposure to a word or a concept later
makes it easier to recall related information
PROSPECTIVE MEMORY V/S
RETROSPECTIVE MEMORY
●Remember to perform actions in the future

●Remember past information

●Cues – Event Based Tasks and Time based

tasks
FLASHBULB MEMORY
●Automatic encoding
●Unexpected event with strong emotional associations
●Eg: 9/11, 26/11, Mumbai floods
●Personal Flashbulb memories
●High level of accuracy of major events
●Subject to decay over time
ORGANIZATION OF
INFORMATION
●Clustering - Categories
●Conceptual Hierarchy
– Common Properties
●Schemas
- Inconsistent v/s Consistent
●Semantic Networks
- A semantic network consists of nodes representing
concepts, joined together by pathways that link related
concepts
- Spread Activation
CONNECTIONISM OR PARALLEL
DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING
- Mental structures are similar to Neural
networks
- Patterns of activation determine
memory recall
- Strength of connection
- Accounts for fast processing
●A brick can be used as a doorstop. ●A flashlight can be used to hold
water.
●A ladder can be used as a bookshelf.
●A rock can be used as a paperweight.
●A wine bottle can be used as a
candleholder. ●A knife can be used to stir paint.
●A pan can be used as a drum. ●A pen can be used as an arrow.
● A barrel can be used as a chair.
●A record can be used to serve potato
chips. ●A rug can be used as a bedspread.
●A guitar can be used as a canoe ● A telephone can be used as an alarm
clock.
paddle.
● A scissors can be used to cut grass.
● A leaf can be used as a bookmark.
●A board can be used as a ruler.
●An orange can be used to play catch.
● A balloon can be used as a pillow.
● A newspaper can be used to swat flies. A shoe can be used to pound nails.
●
● A TV antenna can be used as a clothes ●A dime can be used as a screwdriver.
rack.
● A lampshade can be used as a hat.
● A sheet can be used as a sail.
● A boat can be used as a shelter.
●flashlight ●Dime antenna
● brick Bathtub
●Lampshade ●Wine
● sheet ● bottle
●shoe ● knife
● board
●Rock ● newspaper
● guitar ● pen
●telephone ● pan
● balloon
●Scissors
● record
● boat leaf ● orange
● barrel ● TV

●Ladder
● rug
RETRIEVAL CUES
●Long term memory : vast collection
●Retrieval Cue aid to pull out specific information
from LTM
●Important for recall of information
●Recall more difficult than recognition
●Recall : Search 🡪 retrieval 🡪decision of accuracy
TIP OF THE TONGUE
●Failure of recall temporarily
●Might have bits and pieces of the
memory but have difficulty with
complete retrieval
●Why : quantity of recollections
stored in LTM
●Ways to retrieve : Forget about it
CONTEXT CUES
●Reinstating the Context

●Cues about the environment at the time of encoding

●Facilitate retrieval

●Eye Witness recall – Mentally replay

●Hypnosis Aided recall

WHY IT IS IMPORTANT TO
FORGET
●Lessens the burden and
distraction of meaningless data
●Focus on meaningful data
●To form general impressions
and recollections
THEORIES OF FORGETTING
●Hermann Ebbinghaus (Experimenter and participant)
●List of non-sense syllable words
●Forgetting rapid initially and is more gradual towards the end
MEASURES OF FORGETTING
●Recall
●Recognition
●Relearning
WHY WE FORGET
1. Ineffective Coding
- Psuedo-forgetting
- Lack of Attention
- Type of Encoding
2. Decay Theory
- Memories create a trace
- Lack of rehearsal 🡪Memory Trace fades
away 🡪 Inability to recall
- Longer the time elapsed, more likely to
forget (ACCORDING TO THE THEORY)
- Explains sensory and STM
- Amount, Complexity and Type of Information
- Does not explain procedural memories
3. INTERFERENCE THEORY
●Information interfere with recall of memories
●Competition from other information
●Increase in similarity 🡪 Increase in interference
●Proactive interference : Old information interferes
in retrieval of new information
●Retroactive interference : New information
interferes in retrieval of old information
●Example : order in which you study for the exam,
memory game, mixing names
4. RETRIEVAL FAILURE
THEORY
●Lack of internal/external cues
●Encoding Specificity 🡪 Corresponds to
the memory code.
●Mismatch of cues
●Transfer-Appropriate processing
-Semantic and Phonetic
Eg: Something that rhymes with ‘Mice’
A type of grain
ENHANCING MEMORY
●Engage in Rehearsal
- Testing Effect
- Deep Processing
- Over Learning
●Distributed Practice
- Mass craming
- Interference
MNEMONICS
●Memory Aids
●incorporates unfamiliar ideas
●a series of dissociated ideas that by
themselves are difficult to remember
●Help learners recall large pieces of
information
●Mnemonics improve test scores
METHOD OF LOCI
●Visualize a location that you can walk through
●Associate information to be remembered with
different areas visualized
●Create a story including the information to be
memorized
●Recalled better when stories are more vivid and
strange
●Rehearse the association
● Monkey, elephant, brick, mobile, rat, dress and
boat
CHAIN METHOD/LINK
METHOD
●Associations between words
●Monkey, elephant, brick, mobile, rat, dress
and boat
PEG-WORD
●Associate numbers with rhyming words
●Create associations with items to be
remembered and items are associated with
numbers
●Eg one:bun, two:shoe, three:tree, four:door,
five:hive, six:sticks , seven:heaven, eight:gate,
nine:line , ten:hen
●Monkey, elephant, brick, mobile, rat, dress and
boat
ACRONYM
●Word formed from the first letter of a series of word
to be remembered
●VIBGYOR, NIMHANS, MVEMJSUN

●DIGFAST
THINKING
what are you thinking right now?
How do we think?
Process the information mentally
Thinking consists of the cognitive
rearrangement or manipulation of both
information from the memory and symbols
stored in the long-term memory.
Eg: buying a new pair of shoes
THINKING PROCESS
Symbols-words & language
- The availability of language symbols makes
human thinking more sophisticated

- Mental Image: An image is a mental

representation of a sensory experience; it can
be used to think about things, places, and
events
TYPES OF THINKING
Concept
●Categorizations of objects, events, or
people that share common properties.
●It enable us to organize complex
phenomena into simpler, and therefore
more easily usable, cognitive
categories
CONVERGENT AND DIVERGENT
THINKING
Divergent thinking: The ability to generate
unusual responses to problems or questions.
Convergent thinking: The ability to produce
responses that are based primarily on
knowledge and logic.

●Barriers of thinking -habitual, perceptual,

motivational, emotional, and cultural
CREATIVE THINKING

●The ability to generate original ideas or

solve problems in novel ways
●Steps in creativity

○Preparation,
○ Incubation,
○ Insight,
○ Evaluation,
○ Elaboration
REASONING
●Reasoning, is goal directed, involves inference
and can be either deductive or inductive
●The kind of reasoning that begins with an
assumption is called deductive reasoning- it is
reasoning from general to particular
●Reasoning, that is based on specific facts and
observation, is called inductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning- specific to general
DECISION MAKING
●It is a kind of problem solving in which we are
presented with several alternatives among
which we may choose
●Inductive and deductive reasoning allow us to
make judgments
we draw conclusions, form opinions,
evaluate events, objects, based on knowledge
and available evidences
●Eg: playing badminton state level/final
examination
“MORE ABOUT DECISIONS”

Description: Ask students to write on a piece of paper all of the decisions

that they can remember making so far today. (Examples: what to wear,
what to eat, how to spend free time, etc.) Include all types of decisions on
your list. Allow about 3 minutes for students to write. Now, ask students to
go back through their list and rate their decisions on a scale from 1 to 10,
with a rating of “1” meaning an automatic, habitual decision, and a rating of
“10” meaning a decision that requires careful studying and thought.
Discussion Prompts
1) What does this exercise tell you about how you
make most of your decisions?
2) What is the worst decision you ever made?
3) Do you consider it “the worse” because of the
decision, or was it a reasonable decision with a bad
outcome?
4) Does a “good” decision guarantee a “good”
outcome?
5) Do you have control over the decision, the