Logic and Computer Design Fundamentals

Chapter 5 – Arithmetic
Functions and Circuits

Charles Kime & Thomas Kaminski

© 2004 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Overview
 Iterative combinational circuits
 Binary adders
• Half and full adders
• Ripple carry and carry lookahead adders
 Binary subtraction
 Binary adder-subtractors
• Signed binary numbers
• Signed binary addition and subtraction
• Overflow
 Binary multiplication
 Other arithmetic functions
• Design by contraction
Chapter 5 2
Iterative Combinational Circuits

 Arithmetic functions
• Operate on binary vectors
• Use the same subfunction in each bit position
 Can design functional block for subfunction
and repeat to obtain functional block for overall
function
 Cell - subfunction block
 Iterative array - a array of interconnected cells
 An iterative array can be in a single dimension
(1D) or multiple dimensions

Chapter 5 3
 Block Diagram of a 1D Iterative Array
A n-1B n-1 A1 B0

X n-1 X2 X1
Xn X0
Cell n-1 Y n-1 Y2 Cell 1 Y1 Cell 0
Yn Y0

Cn-1 C1 C0
 Example: n = 32
• Number of inputs = ?
• Truth table rows = ?
• Equations with up to ? input variables
• Equations with huge number of terms
• Design impractical!
 Iterative array takes advantage of the regularity to
make design feasible
Chapter 5 4
Functional Blocks: Addition

 Binary addition used frequently

 Addition Development:
• Half-Adder (HA), a 2-input bit-wise addition
functional block,
• Full-Adder (FA), a 3-input bit-wise addition
functional block,
• Ripple Carry Adder, an iterative array to
perform binary addition, and
• Carry-Look-Ahead Adder (CLA), a
hierarchical structure to improve
performance.
Chapter 5 5
Functional Block: Half-Adder

 A 2-input, 1-bit width binary adder that performs the

following computations:
X 0 0 1 1
+Y +0 +1 +0 +1
CS 00 01 01 10
 A half adder adds two bits to produce a two-bit sum
 The sum is expressed as a X Y C S
sum bit , S and a carry bit, C 0 0 0 0
 The half adder can be specified 0 1 0 1
as a truth table for S and C  1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0

Chapter 5 6
Logic Simplification: Half-Adder

 The K-Map for S, C is: S Y C Y

 This is a pretty trivial map!
By inspection: 0 11 0 1

X 12 3 X 2 13
S  XY  XY  X  Y
S  ( X  Y )( X  Y )
 and
C  XY
C  ( ( XY ) )
 These equations lead to several implementations.

Chapter 5 7
Five Implementations: Half-Adder

 We can derive following sets of equations for a half-

adder:
( a ) S  XY  XY ( d ) S  ( X  Y )C
C  XY C  ( X  Y)
( b ) S  ( X  Y )( X  Y ) ( e ) S  X  Y
C  XY C  XY
( c ) S  ( C XY)
C  XY
 (a), (b), and (e) are SOP, POS, and XOR
implementations for S.
 In (c), the C function is used as a term in the AND-NOR
implementation of S, and in (d), the function C is used in
a POS term for S.
Chapter 5 8
Implementations: Half-Adder
 The most common half
adder implementation is: X
Y S (e)

SX  Y C
C  XY
 A NAND only implementation is:
C
X
S  ( X  Y )C
C  ( ( XY ) ) S
Y

Chapter 5 9
 Functional Block: Full-Adder

 A full adder is similar to a half adder, but includes a

carry-in bit from lower stages. Like the half-adder, it
computes a sum bit, S and a carry bit, C.
• For a carry-in (Z) of Z 0 0 0 0
0, it is the same as X 0 0 1 1
the half-adder: +Y +0 +1 +0 +1
CS 00 01 01 10
• For a carry- in
(Z) of 1: Z 1 1 1 1
X 0 0 1 1
+Y +0 +1 +0 +1
CS 01 10 10 11
Chapter 5 10
Logic Optimization: Full-Adder

 Full-Adder Truth Table: X Y Z C S

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
 Full-Adder K-Map: 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1

S Y C Y

0
11 3
12 0 1
13 2

X 14 17 X 15 17 16
5 6 4

Z Z

Chapter 5 11
Equations: Full-Adder
 From the K-Map, we get:
SX YZ  X Y Z  X YZ  X YZ
C X Y X Z  Y Z
 The S function is the three-bit XOR function (Odd
Function):
SX  Y Z
 The Carry bit C is 1 if both X and Y are 1 (the sum is
2), or if the sum is 1 and a carry-in (Z) occurs. Thus C
can be re-written as:
C  X Y  (X  Y) Z
 The term X·Y is carry generate.
 The term XY is carry propagate.

Chapter 5 12
 Implementation: Full Adder
 Full Adder Schematic Ai Bi
 Here X, Y, and Z, and C
Gi
(from the previous pages)
are A, B, Ci and Co,
respectively. Also,
Pi
G = generate and Ci
P = propagate.
 Note: This is really a combination
of a 3-bit odd function (for S)) and
Carry logic (for Co): Ci+1 Si
(G = Generate) OR (P =Propagate AND Ci = Carry In)
Co  G + P · Ci

Chapter 5 13
 Binary Adders

 To add multiple operands, we “bundle” logical signals

together into vectors and use functional blocks that
operate on the vectors
Description Subscript Name
 Example: 4-bit ripple carry 3210
adder: Adds input vectors Carry In 0110 Ci
A(3:0) and B(3:0) to get Augend 1011 Ai
a sum vector S(3:0) Addend 0011 Bi
 Note: carry out of cell i Sum 1110 Si
becomes carry in of cell Carry out 0011 Ci+1
i+1

Chapter 5 14
4-bit Ripple-Carry Binary Adder

 A four-bit Ripple Carry Adder made from four

1-bit Full Adders:
B3 A3 B2 A2 B1 A1 B0 A

C3 C2 C1
FA FA FA C0

C4 S3 S2 S1 S0

Chapter 5 15
Carry Propagation & Delay
 One problem with the addition of binary numbers is the
length of time to propagate the ripple carry from the least
significant bit to the most significant bit.
 The gate-level propagation path for a 4-bit ripple carry
adder of the last example:

A3 A2 A1 A0
B3 B2 B1 B0

C3 C2 C1 C0

C4
S3
 Note: The "long S2 S S
path" is from A0 or B01though the 0circuit to
S3.

Chapter 5 16
Carry Lookahead

 Given Stage i from a Full Adder, we know that

there will be a carry generated when Ai = Bi =
"1", whether or not there is a carry-in. A B
i i
 Alternately, there will be Gi
a carry propagated if the
“half-sum” is "1" and a
carry-in, Ci occurs.
 These two signal conditions P i
Ci
are called generate, denoted
as Gi, and propagate, denoted
as Pi respectively and are
Ci+1
identified in the circuit: Si
Chapter 5 17
Carry Lookahead (continued)

 In the ripple carry adder:

• Gi, Pi, and Si are local to each cell of the adder
• Ci is also local each cell
 In the carry lookahead adder, in order to reduce the
length of the carry chain, Ci is changed to a more
global function spanning multiple cells
 Defining the equations for the Full Adder in term of the
Pi and Gi:
Pi  A i  B i Gi  A i Bi
S i  Pi  Ci Ci 1  G i  Pi Ci

Chapter 5 18
Carry Lookahead Development

 Ci+1 can be removed from the cells and used to

derive a set of carry equations spanning
multiple cells.
 Beginning at the cell 0 with carry in C0:
C1 = G0 + P0 C0
C2 = G1 + P1 C1 = G1 + P1(G0 + P0 C0)
= G1 + P1G0 + P1P0 C0
C3 = G2 + P2 C2 = G2 + P2(G1 + P1G0 + P1P0 C0)
= G2 + P2G1 + P2P1G0 + P2P1P0 C0
C4 = G3 + P3 C3 = G3 + P3G2 + P3P2G1
+ P3P2P1G0 + P3P2P1P0 C0
Chapter 5 19
Group Carry Lookahead Logic
 Figure 5-6 in the text shows shows the implementation of
these equations for four bits. This could be extended to more
than four bits; in practice, due to limited gate fan-in, such
extension is not feasible.
 Instead, the concept is extended another level by considering
group generate (G0-3) and group propagate (P0-3) functions:
G0  3  G 3  P3 G 2  P3 P2 G1  P3 P2 P1 P0 G0
P0  3  P3 P2 P1 P0
 Using these two equations:
C4  G0  3  P0  3 C0
 Thus, it is possible to have four 4-bit adders use one of the
same carry lookahead circuit to speed up 16-bit addition

Chapter 5 20
Carry Lookahead Example

 Specifications:
3 3
• 16-bit CLA CLA CLA CLA CLA
• Delays: 2 2
CLA
 NOT = 1 2
 XOR = Isolated AND = 3
 AND-OR = 2
 Longest Delays:
• Ripple carry adder* = 3 + 15  2 + 3 = 36
• CLA = 3 + 3  2 + 3 = 12

*See slide 16
Chapter 5 21
Unsigned Subtraction

 Algorithm:
• Subtract the subtrahend N from the minuend M
• If no end borrow occurs, then M  N, and the result
is a non-negative number and correct.
• If an end borrow occurs, the N > M and the
difference M N + 2n is subtracted from 2n, and a
minus sign is appended to the result.
 Examples: 0 1
1001 0100
 0111  0111
0010 1101
10000
1101
() 0011 Chapter 5 22
Unsigned Subtraction (continued)

 The subtraction, 2n  N, is taking the 2’s

complement of N
 To do both unsigned addition and unsigned
A B
subtraction requires:
 Quite complex!
Borrow
 Goal: Shared simpler Binary adder Binary subtractor

logic for both addition

and subtraction Complement 2's
Selective
complementer

 Introduce complements
as an approach Subtract/Add
S
0
Quadruple
1
2-to-1
multiplexer

Result
Chapter 5 23
Complements

 Two complements:
• Diminished Radix Complement of N
 (r  1)’s complement for radix r
 1’s complement for radix 2
 Defined as (rn 
• Radix Complement
 r’s complement for radix r
 2’s complement in binary
 Defined as rn  N
 Subtraction is done by adding the complement of
the subtrahend
 If the result is negative, takes its 2’s complement
Chapter 5 24
Binary 1's Complement

 For r = 2, N = 011100112, n = 8 (8 digits):

(rn – 1) = 256 -1 = 25510 or 111111112
 The 1's complement of 011100112 is then:
11111111
– 01110011
10001100
 Since the 2n – 1 factor consists of all 1's and
since 1 – 0 = 1 and 1 – 1 = 0, the one's
complement is obtained by complementing
each individual bit (bitwise NOT).

Chapter 5 25
Binary 2's Complement

 For r = 2, N = 011100112, n = 8 (8 digits),

we have:
(rn ) = 25610 or 1000000002
 The 2's complement of 01110011 is then:
100000000
– 01110011
10001101
 Note the result is the 1's complement plus
1, a fact that can be used in designing
hardware
Chapter 5 26
Alternate 2’s Complement Method

 Given: an n-bit binary number, beginning at the

least significant bit and proceeding upward:
• Copy all least significant 0’s
• Copy the first 1
• Complement all bits thereafter.
 2’s Complement Example:
10010100
• Copy underlined bits:
100
• and complement bits to the left:
01101100

Chapter 5 27
Subtraction with 2’s Complement
 For n-digit, unsigned numbers M and N, find M
 N in base 2:
• Add the 2's complement of the subtrahend N to
the minuend M:
M + (2n  N) = M  N + 2n
• If M  N, the sum produces end carry rn which is
discarded; from above, M  N remains.
• If M < N, the sum does not produce an end carry
and, from above, is equal to 2n  ( N  M ), the 2's
complement of ( N  M ).
• To obtain the result  (N – M) , take the 2's
complement of the sum and place a  to its left.

Chapter 5 28
Unsigned 2’s Complement Subtraction Example 1

 Find 010101002 – 010000112

1
01010100 01010100
2’s comp
– 01000011 + 10111101
00010001
 The carry of 1 indicates that no
correction of the result is required.

Chapter 5 29
Unsigned 2’s Complement Subtraction Example 2

 Find 010000112 – 010101002

0
01000011 01000011
– 01010100 2’s comp
+ 10101100
2’s comp
11101111
00010001
 The carry of 0 indicates that a correction
of the result is required.
 Result = – (00010001)

Chapter 5 30
Subtraction with Diminished Radix Complement

 For n-digit, unsigned numbers M and N, find M  N in

base 2:
• Add the 1's complement of the subtrahend N to the minuend
M:
M + (2n  1  N) = M  N + 2n  1
• If M  N, the result is excess by 2n  1. The end carry 2n when
discarded removes 2n, leaving a result short by 1. To fix this
shortage, whenever and end carry occurs, add 1 in the LSB
position. This is called the end-around carry.
• If M < N, the sum does not produce an end carry and, from
above, is equal to 2n  1  ( N  M ), the 1's complement of
( N  M ).
• To obtain the result  (N – M) , take the 1's complement of the
sum and place a  to its left.

Chapter 5 31
Unsigned 1’s Complement Subtraction - Example 1

 Find 010101002 – 010000112

1
01010100 01010100
1’s comp
– 01000011 + 10111100
00010000
+1
00010001
 The end-around carry occurs.

Chapter 5 32
Unsigned 1’s Complement Subtraction Example 2

 Find 010000112 – 010101002

01000011 0 01000011
– 01010100 1’s comp
+ 10101011
1’s comp
11101110
00010001
 The carry of 0 indicates that a correction
of the result is required.
 Result = – (00010001)

Chapter 5 33
Signed Integers
 Positive numbers and zero can be represented by
unsigned n-digit, radix r numbers. We need a
representation for negative numbers.
 To represent a sign (+ or –) we need exactly one more bit
of information (1 binary digit gives 2 1 = 2 elements which
is exactly what is needed).
 Since computers use binary numbers, by convention, the
most significant bit is interpreted as a sign bit:
s an–2  a2a1a0
where:
s = 0 for Positive numbers
s = 1 for Negative numbers
and ai = 0 or 1 represent the magnitude in some form.
Chapter 5 34
Signed Integer Representations

Signed-Magnitude – here the n – 1 digits are

interpreted as a positive magnitude.
Signed-Complement – here the digits are
interpreted as the rest of the complement of the
number. There are two possibilities here:
• Signed 1's Complement
 Uses 1's Complement Arithmetic
• Signed 2's Complement
 Uses 2's Complement Arithmetic

Chapter 5 35
Signed Integer Representation Example
 r =2, n=3

Number Sign -Mag. 1's Comp. 2's Comp.

+3 011 011 011
+2 010 010 010
+1 001 001 001
+0 000 000 000
–0 100 111 —
–1 101 110 111
–2 110 101 110
–3 111 100 101
–4 — — 100

Chapter 5 36
Signed-Magnitude Arithmetic
 If the parity of the three signs is 0:
1. Add the magnitudes.
2. Check for overflow (a carry out of the MSB)
3. The sign of the result is the same as the sign of the
first operand.
 If the parity of the three signs is 1:
1. Subtract the second magnitude from the first.
2. If a borrow occurs:
• take the two’s complement of result
• and make the result sign the complement of the
sign of the first operand.
3. Overflow will never occur.

Chapter 5 37
Sign-Magnitude Arithmetic Examples

 Example 1: 0010
+ 0101

 Example 2: 0010
+ 1101

 Example 3: 1010
 0101

Chapter 5 38
Signed-Complement Arithmetic
 Addition:
1. Add the numbers including the sign bits,
discarding a carry out of the sign bits (2's
Complement), or using an end-around carry (1's
Complement).
2. If the sign bits were the same for both
numbers and the sign of the result is different, an
overflow has occurred.
3. The sign of the result is computed in step 1.
 Subtraction:
Form the complement of the number you are
subtracting and follow the rules for addition.
Chapter 5 39
Signed 2’s Complement Examples

 Example 1: 1101
+ 0011

 Example 2: 1101
 0011

Chapter 5 40
Signed 1’s Complement Examples

 Example 1: 1101
+ 0011

 Example 2: 1101
 0011

Chapter 5 41
 2’s Complement Adder/Subtractor
 Subtraction can be done by addition of the 2's Complement.
1. Complement each bit (1's Complement.)
2. Add 1 to the result.
 The circuit shown computes A + B and A – B:
 For S = 1, subtract,
the 2’s complement 3B A 3B A 2 B A 2 B A1 1 0 0

of B is formed by using
XORs to form the 1’s S

comp and adding the 1

applied to C0.
 For S = 0, add, B is
C 3 C C 2 1 C0
passed through FA FA FA FA

unchanged
C4 S3 S2 S1 S0

Chapter 5 42
Overflow Detection

 Overflow occurs if n + 1 bits are required to contain the

result from an n-bit addition or subtraction
 Overflow can occur for:
• Addition of two operands with the same sign
• Subtraction of operands with different signs
 Signed number overflow cases with correct result sign
0 0 1 1
+ 0  1 0 + 1


0 0 1 1
 Detection can be performed by examining the result
signs which should match the signs of the top operand

Chapter 5 43
Overflow Detection
 Signed number cases with carries Cn and Cnshown for correct
result signs:
0 00 01 11 1
0 0 1 1
+ 0  1  0 + 1


0 0 1 1
 Signed number cases with carries shown for erroneous result signs
(indicating overflow):
0 10 11 01 0
0 0 1 1
+ 0  1 0 + 1


1 1 0 0
 Simplest way to implement overflow V = Cn + Cn 
 This works correctly only if 1’s complement and the addition of the
carry in of 1 is used to implement the complementation! Otherwise
fails for 10 ... 0
Chapter 5 44
Binary Multiplication

 The binary digit multiplication table is

trivial:
(a × b) b=0 b=1
a=0 0 0
a=1 0 1
 This is simply the Boolean AND function.
 Form larger products the same way we
form larger products in base 10.

Chapter 5 45
Review - Decimal Example: (237 × 149)10

 Partial products are: 237 × 9, 237 × 4,

and 237 × 1 2 3 7
 Note that the partial product × 1 4 9
summation for n digit, base 10
2 1 3 3
numbers requires
9 4 8 -
adding up to n digits
+ 2 3 7 - -
(with carries).
3 5 3 1 3
 Note also n × m digit
multiply generates up
to an m + n digit result.
Chapter 5 46
Binary Multiplication Algorithm
 We execute radix 2 multiplication by:
• Computing partial products, and
• Justifying and summing the partial products. (same as
decimal)
 To compute partial products:
• Multiply the row of multiplicand digits by each
multiplier digit, one at a time.
• With binary numbers, partial products are very simple!
They are either:
 all zero (if the multiplier digit is zero), or
 the same as the multiplicand (if the multiplier digit is one).
 Note: No carries are added in partial product
formation!
Chapter 5 47
 Example: (101 x 011) Base 2

 Partial products are: 101 × 1, 101 × 1,

and 101 × 0
1 0 1
 Note that the partial product
× 0 1 1
summation for n digit, base 2
1 0 1
numbers requires adding up
to n digits (with carries) in 1 0 1
a column. 0 0 0
 Note also n × m digit 0 0 1 1 1 1
multiply generates up to an m + n digit
result (same as decimal).

Chapter 5 48
Multiplier Boolean Equations

 We can also make an n × m “block” multiplier

and use that to form partial products.
 Example: 2 × 2 – The logic equations for each
partial-product binary digit are shown below:
 We need to "add" the columns to get
the product bits P0, P1, P2, and P3. b1 b0
 Note that some  a1 a0
(a  b1) (a0  b0)
columns may 0
+ (a1  b1) (a1  b0)
generate carries.
P3 P2 P1 P0

Chapter 5 49
Multiplier Arrays Using Adders
 An implementation of the 2 × 2
A
multiplier array is
0
B1 B0

shown:
A1
B1 B0

HA HA

C3 C2 C1 C0
Chapter 5 50
Multiplier Using Wide Adders

 A more “structured” way to develop an n × m

multiplier is to sum partial products using adder
trees
 The partial products are formed using an n × m
array of AND gates
 Partial products are summed using m – 1 adders
of width n bits
 Example: 4-bit by 3-bit adder
 Text figure 5-11 shows a 4 × 3 = 12 element
array of AND gates and two 4-bit adders

Chapter 5 51
Cellular Multiplier Array

 Another way to imple- Column Sum from above

b[ k ]
ment multipliers is to use
Cell [ j , k ]
an n × m cellular array
structure of uniform a[ j ]

elements as shown:
pp [ j , k ]
 Each element computes a
AB
single bit product equalCarry [ j , k ]Co
FA S
Ci
Carry [ j, (k - 1)]
to ai·bj, and implements
a single bit full adder Column Sum to below

Chapter 5 52
Other Arithmetic Functions
 Convenient to design the functional
blocks by contraction - removal of
redundancy from circuit to which input
fixing has been applied
 Functions
• Incrementing
• Decrementing
• Multiplication by Constant
• Division by Constant
• Zero Fill and Extension
Chapter 5 53
Design by Contraction
 Contraction is a technique for simplifying
the logic in a functional block to
implement a different function
• The new function must be realizable from the
original function by applying rudimentary
functions to its inputs
• Contraction is treated here only for
application of 0s and 1s (not for X and X)
• After application of 0s and 1s, equations or
the logic diagram are simplified by using rules
given on pages 224 - 225 of the text.
Chapter 5 54
 Design by Contraction Example
 Contraction of a ripple carry adder to incrementer for n = 3
• Set B = 001
A2 A1 A0
X 0 0 1
0 4 1
X 5
2
C3 5 X C1 3
C0 5 0
S2 S1

A2 A1 A0

S2 S1 S0
(b)
• The middle cell can be repeated to make an incrementer with n > 3.

Chapter 5 55
 Incrementing & Decrementing

 Incrementing
• Adding a fixed value to an arithmetic variable
• Fixed value is often 1, called counting (up)
• Examples: A + 1, B + 4
• Functional block is called incrementer
 Decrementing
• Subtracting a fixed value from an arithmetic variable
• Fixed value is often 1, called counting (down)
• Examples: A  1, B  4
• Functional block is called decrementer

Chapter 5 56
Multiplication/Division by 2n

 (a) Multiplication B3 B2 B1 B0

by 100 0 0
• Shift left by 2 C5 C4 C3 C2 C1 C0
(a)
 (b) Division
by 100 B3 B2 B1 B0
• Shift right by 2
0 0
• Remainder C3 C2 C1 C0 C21 C22
preserved (b)

Chapter 5 57
Multiplication by a Constant

 Multiplication of B(3:0) by 101

 See text Figure 513 (a) for contraction
B3 B2 B1 B0 0 0 B3 B2 B1 B0

Carry
4-bit Adder
output Sum

C6 C5 C4 C3 C2 C1 C0

Chapter 5 58
Zero Fill

 Zero fill - filling an m-bit operand with 0s

to become an n-bit operand with n > m
 Filling usually is applied to the MSB end
of the operand, but can also be done on
the LSB end
 Example: 11110101 filled to 16 bits
• MSB end: 0000000011110101
• LSB end: 1111010100000000

Chapter 5 59
Extension

 Extension - increase in the number of bits at the

MSB end of an operand by using a complement
representation
• Copies the MSB of the operand into the new
positions
• Positive operand example - 01110101 extended to 16
bits:
0000000001110101
• Negative operand example - 11110101 extended to 16
bits:
1111111111110101

Chapter 5 60
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Chapter 5 61