CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Expert
Systems
 Artificial Intelligence

Vision
Robotics

Natural
Language
Speech

Understanding
Artificial
Neural
Systems
Expert
Systems

Figure 1.1 Some Areas of Artificial Intelligence

 Knowledge-Base
Facts
User

Expertise Inference Engine

Expert System

Figure 1.2 Basic Concept of an Expert System Function

 Problem
Domain

Knowledge
Domain

Figure 1.3 A Possible Problem and Knowledge Domain Relationship

Person Question

Manager What can I use it for?

Technologist How can I best implement it?

Researcher How can I extend it?

Consumer How will it help me?

Is it worth the trouble and
expense?
How reliable is it?

Table 1.1 Differing Views of Technology

 Human
Expert

Dialog

Knowledge
Engineer

Explicit Knowledge

Knowledge-Base
of
Expert System

Figure 1.4 Development of an Expert System

Year Events
1943 Post production rules; McCulloch and Pitts Neuron Model
1954 Markov Algorithm for controlling rule execution
1956 Dartmouth Conference; Logic Theorist; Heuristic Search;
“AI” term coined
1957 Perceptron invented by Rosenblatt; GPS (General Problem
Solver) started (Newell, Shaw and Simon)
1958 LISP AI language (McCarthy)
1962 Rosenblatt’s Principles of Neurodynamics on Perceptions
1965 Resolution Method of automatic theorem proving
(Robinson)
Fuzzy Logic for reasoning about fuzzy objects (Zadeh)
Work begun on DENDRAL, the first expert system
(Feigenbaum, Buchanan, et.al.)
1968 Semantic nets, associative memory model (Quillian)
1969 MACSYMA math expert system (Martin and Moses)
1970 Work begins on PROLOG (Colmereauer, Roussell et al.)

Table 1.2 Some Important Events Leading up to the First Release of CLIPS (cont’d)
1973 MYCIN expert system for medical diagnosis(Shortliffe, et. al.)leading to
GUIDON, intelligent tutoring (Clancey) and
TEIRESIAS, explanation facility concept (Davis) and
EMYCIN, first shell (Van Melle, Shortliffe and Buchanan)
HEARSAY II, blackboard model of multiple cooperating experts

1975 Frames, knowledge representation (Minsky)

1976 AM (Artificial Mathematician) creative discovery of math concepts (Lenat)
Dempster-Shafer Theory of Evidence for reasoning under uncertainty
Work begun on PROSPECTOR expert system for mineral exploration (Duda,
Hart, et. al.)

1977 OPS expert system shell (Forgy), used in XCON/R1

1978 Work started on XCON/R1 (McDermott, DEC) to configure DEC computer

systems
Meta-DENDRAL, metarules and rule induction (Buchanan)

1979 Rete Algorithm for fast pattern matching (Forgy)

Commercialization of AI begins
Inference Corp. formed (releases ART expert system tool in 1985)

Table 1.2 Some Important Events Leading up to the First Release of CLIPS (cont’d)
1980 Symbolics, LMI founded to manufacture LISP machines

1982 SMP math expert system; Hopfield Neural Net;

Japanese Fifth Generation Project to develop intelligent computers

1983 KEE expert system tool (IntelliCorp)

1985 CLIPS expert system tool (NASA)

Table 1.2 Some Important Events Leading up to the First Release of CLIPS
Production Rules Separation of Knowledge Knowledge As the
To Model Human and Inference Engine Key To Expertise
Problem Solving The Shell

EXPERT SYSTEMS

Figure 1.5 Convergence of Three Important Factors to Create the Modern Rule‑based Expert System
Class General Area
Configuration Assemble proper components of a system in the proper
way.
Diagnosis Infer underlying problems based on observed evidence.
Instruction Intelligent teaching so that a student can ask Why, How
andWhat If type questions just as if a human was
teaching.
Interpretation Explain observed data.
Monitoring Compares observed data to expected data to judge
performance.
Planning Devise actions to yield a desired outcome.
Prognosis Predict the outcome of a given situation.
Remedy Prescribe treatment for a problem.
Control Regulate a process. May require interpretation,
diagnosis, monitoring, planning, prognosis, and remedies.

Table 1.3 Broad Classes of Expert Systems

Name Chemistry

CRYSALIS Interpret a protein’s 3‑D structure

DENDRAL Interpret molecular structure

TQMSTUNE Remedy Triple Quadruple Mass Spectrometer (keep it tuned)

CLONER Design new biological molecules

MOLGEN Design gene‑cloning experiments

SECS Design complex organic molecules

SPEX Plan molecular biology experiments

Table 1.4 Classic Chemistry Expert Systems

Name Electronics
ACE Diagnosis telephone network faults

IN‑ATE Diagnosis oscilloscope faults

NDS Diagnose national communication net

EURISKO Design 3‑D microelectronics

PALLADIO Design and test new VLSI circuits

REDESIGN Redesign digital circuits to new

CADHELP Instruct for computer aided design

SOPHIE Instruct circuit fault diagnosis

Table 1.5 Classic Electronics Expert Systems

Name Medicine
PUFF Diagnosis lung disease
VM Monitors intensive‑care patients
ABEL Diagnosis acid‑base/electrolytes
AI/COAG Diagnosis blood disease
AI/RHEUM Diagnosis rheumatoid disease
CADUCEUS Diagnosis internal medicine disease
ANNA Monitor digitalis therapy
BLUE BOX Diagnosis/remedy depression
MYCIN Diagnosis/remedy bacterial infections
ONCOCIN Remedy/manage chemotherapy patients
ATTENDING Instruct in anesthetic management
GUIDON Instruct in bacterial infections

Table 1.6 Classic Medical Expert Systems

Name Engineering

REACTOR Diagnosis/remedy reactor accidents

DELTA Diagnosis/remedy GE locomotives

STEAMER Instruct operation - steam powerplant

Table 1.7 Classic Engineering Expert Systems

Name Geology

DIPMETER Interpret dipmeter logs

LITHO Interpret oil well log data

MUD Diagnosis/remedy drilling problems

PROSPECTOR Interpret geologic data for minerals

Table 1.8 Classic Geology Expert Systems

Name Computer Systems

PTRANS Prognosis for managing DEC computers

BDS Diagnosis bad parts in switching net

XCON Configure DEC computer systems

XSEL Configure DEC computer sales order

XSITE Configure customer site for DEC computers

YES/MVS Monitor/control IBM MVS operating system

TIMM Diagnosis DEC computers

Table 1.9 Classic Computer Expert Systems

Travel Agent’s Questions Responses

Can I help you? I'm not sure

Where do you want to go? Somewhere

Any particular destination? Here and there

How much can you afford? I don't know

Can you get some money? I don’t know

When do you want to go? Sooner or Later

Table 1.10 An Example of an Ill-structured Problem

 INFERENCE
ENGINE
KNOWLEDGE WORKING
BASE MEMORY

(RULES) (FACTS)
AGENDA

KNOWLEDGE
EXPLANATION ACQUISITION
FACILITY FACILITY

USER
INTERFACE

Figure 1.6 Structure of a Rule‑Based Expert System

 Success
Rule or String
Failure
1 F ABC
2 F ABC
3 S aABC
1 S BaAC
1 S BCaA
1 F BCaA
2 S BCA

Table 1.11 Execution Trace of a Markov Algorithm

 Rule-Based Expert Systems

Rules Inference Engine Facts

Post Efficient Conflict Execution of the

Production Pattern Resolution Right-Hand-Side
Rules Matching of Rules

Rete
Algorithm

Markov
Algorithm

Figure 1.7 Foundations of Modern Rule‑based Expert Systems

 PROCEDURAL (SEQUENTIAL)
LANGUAGES

IMPERATIVE FUNCTIONAL

ADA PASCAL C LISP APL

Figure 1.8 Procedural Languages

 NONPROCEDURAL
LANGUAGES

DECLARATIVE NONDECLARATIVE

OBJECT ORIENTED LOGIC RULE-BASED FRAME-BASED INDUCTION-

BASED

SMALLTALK PROLOG CLIPS OPS5

Figure 1.9 Nonprocedural Languages

Function Predicates
QUOTE ATOM
CAR EQ
CDR NULL
CPR
CTR
CONS
EVAL
COND
LAMBDA
DEFINE
LABEL

Table 1.12 Original LISP Primitives and Functions

 Characteristic Conventional Program Expert System
Control by ... Statement order Inference engine
Control and data Implicit integration Explicit separation
Control Strength Strong Weak
Solution by ... Algorithm Rules and inference
Solution search Small or none Large
Problem solving Algorithm is correct Rules
Input Assumed correct Incomplete,incorrect
Unexpected input Difficult to deal with Very responsive
Output Always correct Varies with problem
Explanation None Usually
Applications Numeric, file, and text Symbolic reasoning
Execution Generally sequential Opportunistic rules
Program design Structured design Little or no structure
Modifiability Difficult Reasonable
Expansion Done in major jumps Incremental

Table 1.13 Some Typical Differences between Conventional Programs and Expert Systems
 Number of Routes
Cities

1 1

2 1–2–1

3 1–2–3–1

1–3–2–1

4 1–2–3–4–1

1–2–4–3–1

1–3–2–4–1

1–3–4–2–1

1–4–2–3–1

1–4–3–2–1

Table 1.14 Traveling Salesman Problem Routes

 I  Neuron Inputi = W
ij Ij
j
1
Neuron Output =

W
1+e
i1
Wi2

Wi3
Threshold
W i4 

W i5 Figure 1.10 Neuron Processing Element

 Output
Layer

Hidden
Layer

Input
Layer

Figure 1.11 A Back‑propagation Net

Figure 1.12 Hopfield Artificial Neural Net