THE FUNDAMENTAL

UNIT OF LIFE

Class 9 CBSE
Introduction
Cell is the fundamental unit of living organisms. The word cell came from
latin word cellula meaning small room. Plant cell was the first cell to be
discovered by scientists.

Cell is the structural and functional unit of living beings which consists of
a membrane covered mass of protoplasm.

Cytology (Cytos - cell, logos - study) is the study of form and structure of
cells as well as their organelles with the help of a microscope. These days
cytology has been replaced by cell biology. Cell biology is the branch of
biology that deals with the study of structure, biochemistry, physiology,
reproduction, evolution and genetics of cells
DISCOVERY OF CELL
(i) Robert Hooke – (1665) observed dead cell which resembled honeycomb like
structuresin cork (comes from bark of tree). He called them as cellulae.

(ii) Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1674) was the first to observe a living cell in pond
water.

(iii) Robert Brown (1831) discovered the nucleus.

(iv) J. E. Purkinje (1839) used the term protoplasm. It is living matter present
inside the cell.

(v) Knoll and Ruska (1932) of Germany designed the electron microscope which
was employed to study the ultrastructure (fine structure) of cell and various cell
organelles in 1940s
CELL THEORY
Extension of Cell Theory

(i) R. Virchow, in 1855 extended the cell

theory and suggested that all living cells
The "cell theory" was formulated by two arise from pre-existing living cells (Omnis
German biologists, M.J.Schleiden in 1838, cellula e cellula). This was important
a botanist and T.Schwann, a zoologist in because prior to this realization there was
1839. a belief in the spontaneous creation of
life.
According to them, the cell is the
structural and functional unit of all living (ii) Later, Louis Pasteur, in France gave
beings. Cell theory, states that - Bodies of experimental evidence to support
the living beings are made up of cells. Virchow’s extension of the cell theory.
Activities of an organism are the sum total (iii) After extension of cell theory it is
of activities of its cells. Cells arise de known as cell doctrine or modern cell
novo/spontaneously thoery
SIZE AND SHAPE OF CELL
Size of Cell Shape of Cell

(i) Largest cell : In animals – Ostrich egg Shape of cell mainly depends upon the specific
[15 cm in diameter] .In plants – function it performs. (i) Elongated – Nerve cell,
Acetabularia [6-10 cm] . (ii) Discoidal/saucer – RBC,
(ii) Longest cell : In animals – Nerve cell (iii) Spindle – Muscle cell,
[upto 1 meter] In plants – Fibre.
(iv) Spherical – Eggs.
(iii) Smallest cell : PPLO – Pleuro
Pneumonia Like Organism [Mycoplasma – (v) Branched – Pigment cell of the skin. (vi)
Slipper shaped – Paramecium
0.1 to 0.5 µm.]
(vii) Cuboidal – Germ cells of gonads. (viii)
(iv) Normal size of human cell – 20 µm to
Polygonal – Liver cells
30 µm in diameter
Different shapes of cells of human body
BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE CELL
CELL WALL
It is the outermost structure found outside
the plasma membrane in all the plant
cells, bacteria,blue-green algae, some
protists and all fungi. It is absent in the
animal cells.
Structure of cell wall
Cell wall of plant cells is rigid, strong,
thick, porous and non-living structure. It is
formed of a fibrous polysaccharide called
cellulose and hemicellulose. Cell wall is a
protective and supportive coat. It also
provides a definite shape to the cell.

Adjacent walls are cemented by calcium

and magnesium pectate which forms the
middle lamella.
Composition of cell wall in different organisms.
Function of cell wall
1.It permits the plant cell to become 4. It has narrow pores, called pits, through
turgid. As water enters the vacuole by which fine strands of cytoplasm, called
osmosis, the plant cell expands. The cell plasmodesmata are able to pass.
wall has to be strong enough to resist this
expansion and so enable the cell to become 5. Plasmodesmata:- These are
turgid. cytoplasmic connections and they
maintain continuity of cytoplasm among
2. It provides mechanical strength to
the neighbouring cells. Plasmodesmata
support the cell. The cellulosic microfibrils
are useful in transferring stimuli,nutrients
are very strong.The strength may be
and other materials between adjacent
increased by the addition of lignin in tissues
cells.
such as xylem.

3. It is permeable to water and substances

in solution.
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is that part of the protoplasm Role of Cytoplasm :
that surrounds the nucleus. It occupies the
space between the plasma membrane and (1) Participates in intracellular distribution
the nuclear membrane and constitutes the of nutrients, metabolites and enzymes.
bulk of the cell.
(2) Helps in exchange of materials
Chemically,cytoplasm contains about 90% between cell organelles.
water, 7% proteins, 2% carbohydrates and
lipids and 1% inorganic materials, minerals, (3) Acts as a site of chemical reactions
vitamins, etc. like glycolysis (step of respiration),
synthesis of fatty acids etc.
Cytoplasm contains many specialized living
parts called cell organelles. Each cell
organelle has a characteristic shape and
specific functions.
Cell membrane
Cell membrane is also called as Plasma Membrane or Plasmalemma. It
is the limiting boundary of each cell which separates the cytoplasm
from its surroundings. It is found in both plant as well as animal cells
and serves as a selectively-permeable barrier to the outside
environment. It is the outer most covering of a cell in case of animals
and lies below the cell wall in case of plants
Structure of Plasma
membrane
(1) The plasma membrane is flexible and made up of
organic molecules called lipids and proteins.

(2) Singer and Nicholson gave the fluid mosaic model

of plasma membrane. According to them it consists of
a protein layer sandwiched between bilayer of lipids. It
is 75 Å thick.

(3) It is flexible and can be folded, broken and

reunited.

(4) Being selectively permeable in nature, it allows the

Fluid mosaic structure of the plasma membrane given
entry and exit of some materials in and out of the cell
by Singer and Nicholson
Functions of plasma membrane
(1) Holding cell contents : Cell membrane holds the semifluid protoplasmic
contents.

(2) Protection : Plasma membrane protects the animal cells from injury. Plant cell
possesses wall over the plasmalemma for extra protection and support.

(3) Individuality : It maintains form and individuality of the cell.

(4) Organelles : Cell membranes delimit a number of sub cellular structures or

organelles, like nucleus, mitochondria, plastids, Golgi apparatus.

(5) Cell recognition : With the help of glycolipids and glycoproteins, cell membranes
are able to differentiate similar cells from dissimilar ones, foreign substances and
tissues from familiar material. Cell recognition is useful for tissue formation and
defence against microbes.
Functions of plasma membrane
(6) Antigens : Cell membranes possess antigens which determine blood
grouping, acceptance or rejection of a transplant.

(7) Cell Junctions : Formed by modification of plasma membrane and

help in keeping animal cells together.

(8) Microvilli : These are membrane evaginations which are specialized

for increasing absorption.

(9) Membrane Transport : Plasma membrane permits the entry and exit
of some materials in the cells. It also prevents movement of some other
materials. Therefore, the plasma membrane is called a selectively
permeable membrane
Transport Across Plasma Membrane
Substances may pass across the membrane with or without expenditure
of energy
Diffusion

The process of movement of substance (solid, liquid

and gas) from the region of its higher concentration to
the region of its lower concentration so as to spread
uniformly in the given space is called diffusion.
Osmosis
Osmosis can be defined as the diffusion of water
or solvent across semi-permeable membrane from
a region of its higher concentration to the region
of its lower concentration. Plasma membrane
functions as semipermeable membrane.

Example of osmosis:

(i) Absorption of water by plant roots.

(ii) Absorption of water by unicellular fresh water

organisms.
Tonicity-types of solutions
(i) Hypotonic solution- The external solution is dilute as compared to cell
contents. It has more water content as compared to the water content inside the
cell. The cell membrane allows passage of water in both direction. Due to
difference in concentration of water molecules, there is net flow of water
molecules into the cell. The phenomenon is called endosmosis.

(ii) Isotonic solution- The external solution has the same concentration as that of
the cell content. Therefore, water content is equal on both sides. The amount of
water entering the cell is equal to the amount of water leaving the cell.
Therefore, there is no net movement of water. The cell size will remain the same.

(iii)Hypertonic solution- The external solution has more osmotic concentration as

compared to that of cell. The amount of water is less outside as compared to
inside of the cell. Since more water is present inside the cell, more of it will pass
out. The phenomenon is called exosmosis.
 Tonicity-types of solutions

Movement of water in a cell in different types of solution.

Active transport
In active transport energy is supplied to the system to transport
molecules in the direction opposite to the concentration gradient.

Active transport through vesicles is called bulk transport.

Macromolecules, liquid droplets, etc. are transported in bulk (large
quantity by vesicles formed by infolding and unfolding of cell
membranes) using ATP.

It is common in secretory and excretory cells

Types of active transport

(1) Endocytosis: Endocytosis is the ingestion

of material by the cells through the plasma
membrane. It is a collective term that describe
two similar process :

phagocytosis (cell eating), pinocytosis (cell

drinking).

They are pathways for specifically internalizing

solid particles, small molecules, ion and
macromolecules and fluid material respectively.
All require energy, so may be regarded as forms
of active transport.

Phagocytosis by WBC's through pseudopodia

Types of active transport

(2) Exocytosis (Cell Vomiting)- Just as

materials can be brought into the cell by
invagination and formation of a vesicle, the
membrane of a vesicle can fuse with the
plasma membrane and extrude its contents
to the surrounding medium.This is the
process of exocytosis. Exocytosis occurs in
various cells to remove undigested residues
of substances brought in by endocytosis, to
secrete substances such as hormones,
enzymes.
Nucleus
“Nucleus is a double
membrane bound dense
protoplasmic body, which
controls all cellular metabolism
and encloses the genetic
information of the cell”.
Discovered by -robert
brown(1831)
Structure of nucleus
(a) Nuclear envelope : Nucleus is surrounded by two membranes, that
separates nucleoplasm from cytoplasm. The nuclear membrane has minute
pores. These are called nucleo-pores.

(b) Nucleoplasm : The part of protoplasm which is enclosed by nuclear

membrane is called nucleoplasm. It contains chromatin threads and nucleolus.

(c) Nucleolus : Discovered by Fontana. Usually one nucleolus is present in each

nucleus but sometimes more than one nucleoli are present. It is a site of rRNA
and ribosome synthesis.

(d) Chromatin threads: A darkly stained network of long and fine threads called
chromatin threads are present in nucleoplasm. Chromatin threads are
intermingled with one another forming a network called chromatin reticulum.
Whenever the cell is about to divide the chromatin material gets organized
into chromosomes.

Chromosomes are chemically made up of DNA and histone proteins. DNA

carries all genetic information which is passed on to the next generation. The
functional segments of DNA are called genes.
Functions of nucleus
(1) It controls all the metabolic activities of the cell.

(2) It brings about growth of the cell by directing the synthesis of

structural proteins.

(3) It takes part in the formation of ribosomes.

(4) It regulates the cell cycle.

(5) It contains genetic information and is concerned with the

transmission of hereditary traits from one generation to another.
Prokaryotic organisms
Prokaryotes : Organisms which lack membrane bound organelles and a
well defined nucleus and the genetic material lies freely in the form of
nucleoid or genophore are known as prokaryotes.

Ex. Bacteria, blue green algae

Prokaryotes v/s eukaryotes
 DOUBLE
MEMBRAN
E BOUND
ORGANEL
LES
Mitochondria
Discovered by Kollikar but
Benda gave the name as
mitochondria.

They are known as power

house of the cell.

Mitochondria occurs in both

plant and animal cells as
sausage shaped bodies.
 Structure of mitochondria
It is enclosed by double membranes. The
outer membrane is smooth and porous
whereas the inner membrane is folded
inwards to form finger like projections,
cristae. These increase the surface area of
the inner membrane for ATP generating
chemical reactions. Cristae bear F0–F1
particles or oxysomes which is the site of
ATP synthesis.

The inner cavity of mitochondria is filled

with a gel like substance called matrix.
Matrix contains respiratory enzymes, 70S
ribosomes and circular DNA.
Functions of mitochondria
1.Act as site of cellular respiration : (Kreb’s cycle.)

2.Contain all the enzyme which bring about oxidative phosphorylation,

i.e., formation of ATP which is required for all activities of the body.

3.Form middle piece of sperm and give energy for the movement of its
tail.
Plastid
Plastids are major organelles found in the
cells of plants and algae. Plastids are the
site of manufacture of starch used by the
cell. Plastids are responsible for
photosynthesis, storage of products like
starch, proteins, fats.

They are double membrane bound cell

organelles. Plastids are of three types on
the basis of the presence or absence of
pigments
Types of plastids
Structure of chloroplast
Chloroplasts are usually disc-shaped and surrounded
by a double membrane. Each chloroplast consists of
two parts :

(i) Grana : Grana are membranous, flattened, discoidal

sacs piled over each other. Each granum of the
chloroplast is formed by superimposed closed
compartments called Thylakoids. In each thylakoid,
photosynthetic units are present which possesses
chlorophyll molecules. The grana are interconnected by
tubular membranes called the intergranal frets or
stromal lamellae.

(ii) Stroma : It is granular transparent substance also

called as matrix. Grana are embedded in it.Besides
grana they also contain lipid droplets, starch grains,
ribosomes, DNA etc
Functions of chloroplast
Chloroplasts are the site for photosynthesis. They contain enzymes
necessary for the process of photosynthesis. Grana is site of light
reaction and stroma is site of dark reaction of photosynthesis.

* Both mitochondria and chloroplast have a circular DNA and 70S

ribosome of their own and make some of their own proteins but are
dependent on nuclear DNA for some proteins that's why they are called
semi-autonomous cell organelles
 Single
membran
e bound
organelle
s
Endoplasmic reticulum
Term ‘endoplasmic reticulum’ was coined by
Porter, Claude and Fullan in 1945. ER is a
complex network of membrane bound
channels or sheets, tubules and vesicles. At
some places it communicates with plasma
membrane, nuclear membrane and golgi
complex. It consists of three forms-cisternae,
vesicles and tubules.
Structure of endoplasmic
reticulum

Cisternae are broad, flat and

elongated parallel sacs.

Vesicles are spherical in

shape.

Tubules are branched tube like

spaces
Types of endoplasmic reticulum
A. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – Ribosomes are present on its
surface giving it rough appearence. It is also known as granular
endoplasmic reticulum. They synthesize proteins and enzymes.

B. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – Ribosomes are absent on its

surface giving it smooth appearence. It is also known as agranular
endoplasmic reticulum. They synthesize lipids.
Functions of endoplasmic reticulum
(1) ER serve as channels for the transport of materials between various
regions of cytoplasm or between cytoplasm and nucleus.

(2) It also functions as a cytoplasmic framework providing a surface for some

of the biochemical activities of the cell.

(3) RER helps in protein synthesis.

(4) SER plays an important role in detoxifying many poisons and drugs and is
also the site of lipid synthesis.

(5) Some of proteins and lipids synthesized by RER and SER help in building
cell membrane. This is known as 'Membrane Biogenesis'
 Golgi complex
Discovered by Camillo Golgi (1898) in nerve cells of owl.

Golgi carried out a revolutionary method of staining individual

nerve and cell structures. This method is referred to as "The
black reaction". This method uses a weak solution of silver
nitrate and is particularly valuable in tracing the processes
and most delicate ramifications of cells. Golgi shared the
Nobel prize in 1906 with Santiago Ramony Cajal for their work
on structure of nervous system.

Position: It is located near the nucleus.

Structure of Golgi complex
It is a membranous structure which
originates from the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum. Formed of interconnected
stacks of flattened membranous sacs
called cisternae. Besides cisternae, the
golgi complex also bears large vacuoles
and clusters of small vesicles. In plant
cells, the Golgi complex exists as freely
distributed sub-units of Golgi apparatus
and are called dictyosomes.
Functions of Golgi complex
(i) It is involved in cell-secretion and acts as storage, modification and
condensation or packaging protein.

(ii) It forms the Acrosome of sperm.

(iii) It forms the lysosomes and secretory vesicles.

(iv) It is the site for formation of glycolipids and glycoproteins.

(v) Synthesis of cell wall material (Polysaccharide synthesis).

(vi) Cell plate formation during cell division.

 Lysosome
Discovered by Christan de Duve.

Lysosomes are spherical bag like structures covered by a single

membrane without any definite shape or size.

Lysosomes hold hydrolytic enzymes called acid hydrolases. The

purpose of the lysosome is to keep the cell clean by digesting any
foreign materials as well as worn-out cell organelles. They might be
used to digest or break down the cell when it dies. They occur in
animal cells and a few plant cells. During disturbances in cellular
metabolism i.e. in case of cell damage, lysosomes burst and their
enzymes are released into the cytoplasm and they digest their own
cell. So they are also called as “Suicidal Bag”
 Functions of lysosome
1. Lysosomes take part in digestion of food obtained through phagosomes. It
is known as intracellular digestion.

2. Lysosomes of white blood cells take part in natural self defence of the body.

3. In the metamorphosis of many animals like amphibians certain embryonic

parts like tails, gills are digested with the help of lysosomes.

4. Worn-out structures are destroyed by lysosomes.

5. Lysosomes of sperms provide enzymes for breaking membrane of the egg.

 NON-
MEMBRAN
OUS CELL
ORGANEL
LES
Ribosome
Ribosomes are the smallest cell organelles which
can be seen only through an electron microscope.

Ribosomes are dense, round bodies that may occur

freely in the cytoplasm known as free ribosomes or
may remain attached to the surface of endoplasmic
reticulum known as bound ribosomes.

Chemically, ribosomes are made up of

ribonucleoprotein i.e. proteins and rRNA.
Classification of ribosome
They are found in the both prokaryotic as well as
eukaryotic cells. The cytoplasmic ribosomes of
eukaryotes are 80S and in prokaryotic cells and
cell organelles like mitochondria and chloroplast,
they are 70S type. Each ribosome consists of two
unequal subunits, larger dome shaped and
smaller ovoid. The two subunits of 80 S
ribosomes are 60 S and 40 S while 70 S type
ribosomes have 50 S and 30 S subunits. (S is the
sedimentation coefficient)
Function of ribosome
Ribosomes help in the process of
protein synthesis. They are,
therefore, called the protein
factories of the cell.
Centrosomes
Centrosomes are distinct regions in the
cytoplasm close to the nucleus. They are found
only in animal cells and lower plants. In higher
plant cells, the centrosome is absent.
Centrosome is not bounded by any membrane.

Function

By arranging spindle fibres, they assist in cell

division.
 Vacuole
Vacuoles are membrane bound non-cytoplasmic sacs
that contain non living liquid or solid contents.

They are common fluid filled vacuoles which occur in

both plant and animal cells. In animal and young plant
cells, sap vacuoles are small. In mature plant cells, there
is a large central vacuole occupying 50–90% of cell
volume. The covering membrane of the sap vacuole is
called tonoplast. The fluid content of the vacuole is
called cell sap. Sap vacuole stores salts, sugar, amino
acid, organic acids and some proteins. It is also a dump
for waste products in plant cells. Sap vacuole helps in
maintaining turgidity and rigidity of the cell. It is also
required in osmotic absorption of water.
Functions of vacuoles
Vacuoles help to maintain the osmotic pressure in a cell
(osmoregulation). They provide turgidity and rigidity to the plant
cells.

They may contain pigments like anthocyanin.

They store waste products or plant metabolites like tanin and latex.

Contractile vacuole : Present in unicellular freshwater organisms and

take part in osmoregulation and excretion.
 Cell
division
Cell division
Cell division is an important phenomenon that occurs in
all living beings. By this process, new cells are formed. In
unicellular organisms, cell division is a means of
reproduction. In multicellular organisms, life begins from
a single cell, the zygote, which divides and re-divides to
form a multicellular living organism with a complex
organization. Two types of cell division occur in
organisms. These are mitosis and meiosis. Mitotic cell
division occurs in somatic cells while meiotic cell division
occurs in reproductive cells during the gamete formation.
Cell division includes two events. These are :

(i) Nuclear division or karyokinesis, followed by the,

(ii) Division of cytoplasm or cytokinesis

Mitosis v/s meiosis
Thank
you