State of Matter

Gaseous State
The matter which do not have fix shape and volume is called
gas. The physical properties of gas are
i. Gases do not have definite shape and volume.
ii. It expands on heating and compress on cooling
iii. It under goes diffusion
iv. It exerts pressure on the wall of the container

Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

Gases are microscopic particles. The properties of gases are
explained on the concept of free motion of gases molecules
which is called Kinetic molecular theory of gases. The basic
1. All the gases consist of large number of minute particles,
called molecules.
2. The gases molecules are assumed to be identical, solid
and spherical particles.
3. The volume occupied by gaseous molecule is negligible as
compared to total volume of gas.
4. All the gases molecules are in a random motion in the
straight line with in the boundary of the container.
5. The gases molecules collide with each other and with the
wall of the container. And the collisions are perfectly
elastic i.e. there is no loss of energy during the collision.
6. The force of attraction and repulsion between the gases
molecules is negligible.
7. The gases exert pressure on the wall of the container due
to the collision of molecule on the wall of the container.
8. The average kinetic energy of gas molecule is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature.

Gas Laws:
The interrelationship between volume, pressure,
molecular mass, density etc. can be studied in the form of
generalization, which are called gas laws. Some important
gas laws are:
1. Boyle’s Law:
Robert Boyle first studied the effect of change of pressure
on the volume of certain mass of gas and gave a
mathematical relationship, called Boyle’s law.
This law states that, “the volume of certain mass of gas is
inversely proportional to the pressure at constant
temperature”.
let V be the volume of certain mass of gas at pressure P at
constant temperature. Then
According to Boyle’s law

Vα
or, V

or, V×P=K
Where, K is proportionality constant.
let volume of certain mass of gas at pressure P1 be V1 and at
pressure P2be V2 at constant temperature. Then, according
to Boyle’s law
P1 × V1 = K …………….(i)
P2 × V2 = K …………….(ii)
Now, equating equation (i) and (ii). We get
P1 × V1 = P2 × V2
This equation is the general form of Boyle’s law
 Graphical representation of Boyle’s law:
Boyle’s law can be verified graphically by plotting different
PV – curves, which are found as:

V V PV

P 1/P P

Fig: 1 Fig: 2 Fig: 3

i. When volume is plotted against pressure at constant
temperature, a hyperbolic curve is obtained as in fig (1).
ii. Similarly, when volume is plotted against 1/p, a straight
line with some slope is obtained.
iii. When product of pressure and volume is plotted against
 the pressure, a horizontal line with some intercept is
obtained.
All these graph represent the Boyle’s law and these graphs
are called isotherms.
Application of Boyle’s law:
i. At higher altitude, pressure of gas decreases and volume
should increase due to which the gas becomes less dense.
Thus, less oxygen is available for breathing which causes
sickness. Due to this, mountain climbers always carry
oxygen cylinder. This is in accordance with Boyle’s law.
ii. In the flight of balloon, it is filled partially filled on the
ground. But, as it rises into the upper atmosphere, the gas
expand due to low pressure and balloon is filled
completely. This is also in accordance with Boyle’s law.
1. A vessel contains 250ml of gas at 650 mm of Hg pressure.
The gas is compressed to 150 ml at constant temperature.
Find the pressure of the compressed gas.
Initial condition Final condition
pressure (P1) = 650 mm of Hg pressure (P2) = ?
Volume (V1) = 250 ml Volume (V2) = 150 ml

From Boyle’s law

P1 × V1 = P2 × V2
650 × 250 = P2 × 150

P2 =
2. 100cc of gas at 750 mm of Hg is expanded so that the final
pressure is 250 mm of Hg. Find the volume of expanded
gas.
3. A gas occupies a certain volume under a pressure of 1
atm. What pressure will be required to compress the
volume to 1/3rd at constant temperature.
Initial condition Final condition
pressure (P1) = 1 atm pressure (P2) = ?
Volume (V1) = V ml Volume (V2) = V/3 ml
From Boyle’s law 4. A gas occupies 750cc at NTP. What pressure
P1 × V1 = P2 × V2 does it required to compress the volume
1 × v = P2 × V/3 to250cc at constant temp.?
5. 3L of an ideal gas at 780mm of Hg is
expanded at constant temp. so that the
P2 = 3 atm. final pressure is 1/5th of its original
pressure. Find the volume of the gas.
2. Charle’s Law
Jacques Charles studied the effect of change of
temperature on the volume of certain mass of gas at
constant pressure and derived a mathematical relation,
called Charle’s law.
This law states that, “” the volume of certain mass of gas
increases or decreases by 1/273 parts of its volume at 0o C
for each 1o C rise or fall in temperature at constant
pressure.”
Let V0 be the volume of certain mass of gas at 0oC and v1
for 1oC rise of temperature, then according to Charle’s law
or, ……………. (i)

Similarly, let v2 be the volume of same gas for 2oC rise of

temperature, then

or, ………………(ii)

Equation (i) and (ii) can be generalized for each t1oC and t2oC
rise in temperature whose volume be V1 and V2
respectively.
For t1oC rise in temperature,

Volume …………… (iii)

For t2oC rise in temperature,

Volume ……………….. (iv)

Now, dividing equation (iii) by (iv), we get

or,

or, …………….. (v)

Where, T1 = 273 + t1 and T2 = 273 + t2 are new

temperatures called absolute temperature or temperature
in Kelvin scale.
Equation (v) can be written as
VαT
Thus, Charle’s law can also stated as, “ the volume of
certain mass of gas is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature at constant pressure.”
Graphical Representation of Charle’s Law:
Charle’s law can be verified graphically by plotting volume
vs temperature plot, where an inclined straight line with
some intercept on volume axis is obtained. This shows that
volume is directly proportional to temperature.
 The volume of gas theoretically becomes zero at – 273oC
i.e. at zero Kelvin. Zero Kelvin is called as absolute zero
temperature. Practically absolute zero is not possible.
Numericals:
1. A gas occupies 350 ml at 40oC. Calculate the temperature
at which the volume of gas becomes 400ml at constant
pressure.
Solution:
Initial condition Final condition
temperature (T1) = 40oC temperature (T2) = ?
= 40 + 273 Volume (V2) = 400 ml
= 313 K
Volume (V1) = 350 ml
Or,

Or, = 357.7 K

2. 475 ml of a pure sample of Helium gas at 25oC were

heated to 35oC at constant pressure. Calculate the
expanded volume.
3. Combined Gas Equation:
The combination of Boyle’s law and Charle’s law
gives the combined gas equation or equation of
state. It gives the simultaneous effect of change of
pressure and temperature on the volume of
certain mass of gas.
let V be volume and P be pressure of certain mass
of gas at temperature T then,
According to Boyle’s law, Volume is inversely
proportional to pressure at constant temperature.
V α ……………. (i)
According to Charle’s law, volume is directly proportional to
temp. at constant pressure
V α T ………….. (ii)
Combining equation (i) and (ii), we get

Vα

or, V

or, , Where, K is constant.

This is general form of combined gas equation. let volume of

certain mass of gas at pressure P1 and temp. T1 be V1 and at
pressure P2 and temp. T2 be V2. Then from above equation:
 ………….. (iii)
And
……………. (iv)

equating eq. (iii) and (iv), we get

This is the required combined gas equation.

 Numericals:
1. 150 ml of dry hydrogen gas exerts 725 mm of Hg pressure
at 25oC. Calculate the volume of gas at NTP.
Initial condition At NTP
temperature (T1) = 25oC temperature (T2) = 0oC
= 25+ 273 = 0+ 273
= 298 K = 273 K
Volume (V1) = 150 ml Volume (V2) = ?
Pressure (P1) = 150 mm of Hg Pressure (P2) = 760 mm of Hg
From combined gas equation

or,
 Or,

V2 = 131.08 ml
2. 100 ml of dry nitrogen gas collected at 27oC and 650 mm
of Hg pressure are cooled to - 60oC and 710 mm of Hg
pressure. Calculate the volume occupied by cooled gas.
 Real & Ideal Gases
Ideal Gas Real Gas
Those gases which follow ideal Real gases follow ideal gas
gas equation at every conditions equation only at high
are ideal gases. temperature and low pressure.
Intermolecular forces do not Intermolecular forces exist.
exist.
They do not have volume. Gas molecules have volume.
Collision is perfectly elastic. Collision is non elastic.
Do not exist in nature, so Exist in nature, so real gases.
hypothetical gases.
It follows ideal gas equation It follows Vander Waal equation
 Cause of Deviation
• The Cause of deviation of real gas from the gas
laws and postulates of kinetic theory of gas is
due to two faulty assumption related to
Pressure and Volume
• Therefore Vander Waal did Pressure and
volume correction for real gas i.e.
• (P+an2/V2)(V−nb)= nRT
 Daltons Law of Partial Pressure
• In 1807, John Dalton put forwarded a mathematical as well as
theoretical relationship between partial pressure of different non-
reacting gas and total pressure exerted by the mixture when enclosed
in vessel.
• Partial pressure: The pressure exerted by the individual component of
the non-reacting gaseous mixture, if present alone in the vessel is
called partial pressure.
• Statement: “The total pressure exerted by the gaseous mixture of two
or more non-reacting gas is equal to the sum of the partial pressure at
a constant temperature.”
• If p1, p2, p3,…….are the partial pressure of different non-reacting gases
like A, B, C and PT is total pressure of the mixture at the same
temperature.
• Then, PT = p1 + p2 + p3…….
 Derivation of Dalton’s law of partial pressure
Let, a vessel contains three different gases A, B, C having number of moles n1, n2, n3
respectively and the total number of moles of the mixture is nT.
Then, nT = n1 + n2 + n3
From Ideal gas equation PV = nRT
Or, P =
So, p1 = RT ,.........(i)
p2 = RT,..........(ii)
p3 = RT ...........(iii)
and, pT = RT
Where, p1, p2, p3 are the partial pressure of the gas A, B, C respectively. Adding
equation (i), (ii) and (iii) then we get,
p1+p2+p3 = n1 /V RT + n2 /V RT + n3 /V RT
= (n1 + n2 + n3)/V RT
= nT /V RT
= PT i.e. PT = p1 + p2 + p3
This is the mathematical expression of Dalton’s law of partial pressure.
Relation between partial pressure, total pressure and number of
moles:
If we divide the partial pressure of a particular component of gas by
the total pressure of the mixture of gases then,
we get, =
or, =
or, p1 = X p T

Thus, Partial pressure = Mole fraction of gas X Total pressure of gas.

Mole fraction of A =
Application of Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures:
This law is useful in determining the pressure of a dry gas. When
any gas is collected by the downward displacement of water, water
vapour are mixed with dry gas and this gas is called moist gas. The
partial pressure exerted by water vapour is called aqueous tension.
It is denoted by the symbol 'f ‘.
Therefore, total pressure, pT = pdry gas + pmoisture or (f) or aqueous
tension

pdry gas = pT - f
A mixture of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas exerts a total pressure of 1.5 atm on the walls
of its container. If the partial pressure of hydrogen is 1 atm, find the mole fraction of
oxygen in the mixture.

Given, Phydrogen = 1 atm, Ptotal = 1.5 atm

Applying Dalton’s law formula, Ptotal = Phydrogen + Poxygen

Therefore, Poxygen = 0.5 atm

Now, the mole fraction of oxygen, Xoxygen = (Poxygen/Ptotal) = 0.5/1.5 = 0.33

Therefore, the mole fraction of oxygen in the mixture is 0.33

At a temperature of 300K, 30 litres of gas A kept under pressure of 1 atm and 15 litres of
gas B kept under pressure of 2 atm is transferred into an empty 10L container. Calculate
the total pressure inside the container and the partial pressures of gas A and gas B
(Assume that A and B are ideal gases).

From the ideal gas equation, PV = nRT

Number of moles of gas A = (30L*1atm)/(0.08206 atm.L.mol -1.K-1 * 300K) = 1.22 mol

Number of moles of gas B = (15*2atm)/(0.08206 atm.L.mol -1.K-1 * 300K) = 1.22 mol

Total number of moles in the gaseous mixture = 2.44 mol

Total pressure inside the 10L container = Ptot = nRT/V

Ptot = (2.44mol*0.08206 atm.L.mol-1.K-1*300K)/10L = 6.006 atm

Therefore, the total pressure inside the 10 litre container is 6.006 atm
Mole fraction of gas A = mole fraction of gas B = (1.22 mol/2.44 mol) = 0.5

Therefore, partial pressure of gas A = Therefore, partial pressure of gas B = 0.5*6.006 =

3.003 atm

Thus, the partial pressures of gases A and B in the 10L container are both equal to 3.003
atm.
Graham's Law of Diffusion or (Effusion):
• Diffusion is a process by virtue of which two or
more gases intermix with each other,
independent of gravitation to form a
homogeneous mixture

• The movement of gases molecules from high

pressure region to low pressure region. Diffusion
of gases through a small tiny aperture or pinhole
or orifice is called effusion.
• It states that “at constant temperature and
pressure atoms with high molar mass diffuses
slower than atom with low molar mass”.
Statement of Graham’s Law of Diffusion:
Under identical conditions of temperature and pressure, the rate of
diffusion of gases is inversely proportional to the square root of their
densities.

If r1 and r2 are the rates of diffusion of any two gases whose densities
are d1 and d2 respectively, then according to this law:

Hence, Graham’s Law of diffusion can also be stated as the rate of

diffusion of gases is inversely proportional to the square root of their
molecular masses.
Rate of Diffusion is defined as the volume of gas diffused per unit
time.

The time taken for diffusion is directly proportional to the molecular

weight.

Application of Graham’s Law of Diffusion:

1.To determine the molecular mass and vapor density
of a gas.
2.To separate different gases from their mixture.
3.To separate the isotopes of same element.
1. A mixture of ozone and oxygen containing 20% by volume of
ozone diffused through a porous plug in 172 seconds, while
the same volume of pure oxygen took 164 seconds to diffuse
through the same plug. Calculate the relative density of
ozone.
2. How long will it take 500 mL of hydrogen gas to diffuse
through a partition if 250 mL of oxygen diffuse in 50 minutes
under similar conditions?
3. The rate of diffusion of a saturated hydrocarbon (Cn H2n + 2)
gas is 1.206 times that of SO2 gas under identical conditions.
Find the molecular formula and the value of 'n' for the gas.
(Mol. mass of SO2 = 64).
4. Through the two ends of a glass-tube of length 2 meters,
hydrogen chloride (HCl) and ammonia (NH3) gases are
allowed to enter. At what distance ammonium chloride will
first appear?
1. A fire extinguisher of 3 ltr contains 4.4 kg of CO2. Find the volume of CO2 the
extinguisher can release at NTP.
2. A vessel contains certain volume of gas at 270C. The vessel is heated, so that
3/5 th of the gas is escaped out. Find the final temperature.
3. At a laboratory party, a helium-filled balloon with a volume of 2.00 L at 22°C
is dropped into a large container of liquid nitrogen (T =−196°C). What is the
final volume of the gas in the balloon?
4. A hydrocarbon CxHy has mass ratio between hydrogen and carbon 1:10.5.
One litre of the hydrocarbon at 127°C and 1 atm Pressure weights 2.8 g, find
the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon.
5. A vessel Contains 12 g of an ideal gas at 1oC temperature and 1 atm
pressure. When the temperature is increased by 10oC at the same volume,
the pressure increased by 10%. Calculate the volume and initial
temperature. (Molecular mass of gas = 120 amu)
6. Calculate the mass of oxygen gas whose volume is 320 mL at 17°C and 2 atm
pressure. (PV=wRT/M)
 LIQUID STATE
• Evaporation : The process of changing liquid into vapour state or gas state
by heating is called evaporation or vaporization.
At any particular temperature, the energy of some of the molecules may be so
high that they may overcome the forces of attraction by the neighbouring
molecules and may leave the liquid and come in the space above the liquid.
This process is called evaporation.
• Condensation : the process of changing vapour into liquid state by cooling is
called condensation.
The molecules in the vapour phase are also constantly moving and some of
them strike on the surface of the liquid and may be recaptured by the liquid.
The process is called condensation.
• Vapour Pressure: When a liquid is heated in a closed vessel, first
evaporation occurs and after certain time condensation also occurs.
Ultimately, a stage is reached when the rate of evaporation becomes equal
to the rate of condensation. This state is called the state of equilibrium. The
pressure exerted by the vapour at this stage is called vapour pressure or
sometimes called saturated vapour pressure as the vapour phase is
saturated with vapour at this stage.
 Vapour pressure of a
liquid at any
temperature may be
defined as the pressure
exerted by the vapour
present above the liquid
in equilibrium with the
liquid at that
temperature.

Attainment of equilibrium
 BOILING AND BOILING POINT: Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a
liquid, which occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point.
The temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid
becomes equal to the external atmospheric pressure is called the
boiling point of the liquid. When the external pressure is normal
atmospheric pressure (i.e. 760 mm), the boiling point is called the
normal boiling point. For e.g. normal boiling point of water is 100°C.
Differences between evaporation and boiling:
Evaporation Boiling
Evaporation takes place spontaneously at Boiling takes place at a particular
all temperatures. temperature where vapour pressure
becomes equal to atmospheric pressure.
It causes cooling effect. It causes heating effect

It is silent process It is noisy process

It is surface phenomenon (takes place It is bulk phenomenon (bubble formation

only on the surface of the liquid). of the vapour below the liquid surface) .
SURFACE TENSION:
The property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an
external force, due to the cohesive nature of its molecules.
The surface tension of a liquid is also defined as the force at right
angles to the surface along one centimeter length of the surface.
Thus, the units of surface tension are dynes per cm (or Newton per
meter i.e. Nm –1 in the SI system).
Some important results due to surface tension:
1. Spherical shape of liquid drops : to minimize the surface tension.
2. Capillary action of liquid : due to result of adhesive force (liquid-
surface) and cohesive force (molecules of same liquid)
3. Efficiency of tooth paste : tooth paste lowers the surface tension
of liquid and spreads all over.
4. Cleansing action of soap : soaps and detergents lower the surface
tension between water and grease or dirt so they can mix up
easily and are removed.
5. Better wash clothes in hot water than in cold water : hot water
lowers the surface tension between water and dirt.
Effect of temperature on surface tension: The surface tension of liquids
generally decreases with increase of temperature and becomes zero at the
critical temperature (where the meniscus between the liquid and the
vapour disappears). The decrease in surface tension with increase of
temperature is obviously due to the fact that with increase of temperature
the kinetic energy of the molecules and hence, the speeds of molecules
increase and therefore, the intermolecular attraction decreases.
VISCOSITY: The internal property of liquid due to which it resists to flow is called
viscosity. The liquids which flow slowly, obviously have high internal resistance
which is due to strong intermolecular forces and therefore said to be more viscous
or high viscosity. On the other hand, the liquids which flow rapidly have low
internal resistance which is due to weak inter-molecular forces and hence, are said
to be less viscous or are said to have low viscosity. For e.g. honey flows slowly
than water.

It has been found that the force of friction (f) between two cylindrical layers each
having area A square cm separated by a distance x cm, and having a velocity
difference of v cm / sec, is given by f = ŋ Where, ŋ (eta) is a constant known as
coefficient of viscosity.
If x = 1 cm, A = 1 sq.cm and v = 1 cm/sec, then f = ŋ . Hence, Coefficient of
viscosity ‘ŋ’ is defined as the force of friction (in dynes) required to maintain a
velocity difference of 1 cm/sec between two parallel layers, 1cm apart and each
having an area of 1 sq.cm
Thus the units of viscosity are dynes cm–2. This quantity is called poise (derived
from the name of the pioneer worker Poiseuille, in the field of viscosity)
For e.g. machine parts get jammed more in winter than summer, hot soup is
tastier than cold soup, blood viscosity changes during fever and infection
Effect of temperature on viscosity:
With increase in temperature, the kinetic energy of the molecules of the
liquid also increases. Hence, the liquid starts flowing faster. In other
words, the viscosity of a liquid decreases with increase in temperature.
It has been found that the decrease is about 2% per degree rise of
temperature.
Some important questions:
1. Name the physical property
behind rise of liquids in
capillary tube.
2. Name and define the
physical property behind the
spherical shape of liquid
drop.
3. What is evaporation? How
does it differ from boiling?
4. Define coefficient of
viscosity.
Liquid Crystals:
Liquid crystals are a state of matter which has properties between those
of conventional liquids and those of solid crystals i.e. mesophase. For
instance, a liquid crystal may flow like a liquid, but its molecules may be
oriented like a crystal.

Application of Liquid Crystal:

Liquid crystals are everywhere in nature. For e.g. LCD (Liquid

Crystal Display) devices like computer/laptop screens,
Television, clocks, visors, navigation systems.

They are found in shells of beetles, DNA molecules, human

bone, wood cellulose, protein, tobacco mosaic viruses, some
clay, solution of soap and detergents, bacteria even slug slime.

Test for air pollutant

SOLID STATE: Classifications of solids:
a. CRYSTALLINE AND AMORPHOUS SOLIDS:
A solid is said to be crystalline if its various constituent particles (i.e.
ions, atoms or molecules) are arranged in a definite geometric pattern in
three dimensional spaces and have sharp edges.
On the other hand, a solid is said to be amorphous if there is no regular
arrangement of its constituent particles and do not have sharp edges.

Difference between Crystalline solid and Amorphous solids:

Crystalline solids Amorphous solids
The constituent particles are The constituent particles are not
arranged in a regular fashion in arranged in any regular fashion.
crystallographic axis.
They have sharp melting points. They melt over a range of
temperature.
They are anisotropic. They are isotropic.
They undergo a clean cleavage. They undergo a irregular cleavage.
ISOTROPY AND ANISOTROPY:
In case of amorphous substances, properties like electrical conductivity, refractive
index, thermal expansion etc. are identical in all directions just as in case of gases or
liquids. This property is called isotropic properties and the phenomenon is called
isotropy. The substances showing this property are called isotropic substance.
On the other hand, in case of crystalline substances, the properties mentioned above
have different values in different directions. This type of behavior is called anisotropic
properties and the phenomenon is called anisotropy. The substances exhibiting this
type of behavior are called anisotropic substance. Thus, amorphous substances are
isotropic in nature but the crystalline substances are anisotropic. The anisotropy
exhibited by crystalline substances is obviously due to the fact that in making
measurements in different directions, different types of particles fall on the way.
b. HYGROSCOPIC, DELIQUESCENT AND EFFLORESCENT SOLIDS:
Solids that absorb moisture (water molecules) from atmosphere and
become hydrated are called hygroscopic solids and the phenomenon is
called hygroscopy.
For example, sugar, CuSO4 etc.
CuSO4 + 5H2O → CuSO4.5H2O
anhydrous moisture hydrated
Solids that absorb moistures from atmosphere and change to liquid
state are called deliquescent solids and the phenomenon is called
deliquescence.
For example, NaOH, KOH, NH4Cl, CaCl2 etc.
CaCl2 + H2 O → CaCl2
solid aqueous
Solids that lose their water of crystallization when exposed to
atmosphere are called efflorescent solids and the phenomenon is called
efflorescence.
For example, Na2CO3.10H2O, CuSO4.5H2O etc.
ALLOTROPY and Transition Temperature:
Allotropes are different forms of same element i.e. chemically same but differ in
Physical properties.

For example: Carbon (diamond, graphite), Sulphur, (Rhombic, Monoclinic)

Phosphorous (red, white), (oxygen, ozone) etc.

The temperature at which one allotropic form is transited to its other form is called
transition temperature

Polymorphism: The phenomenon in which solid substance exist in more than one
physical form. for e.g. carbon, sulphur, silica etc

Isomorphism: The process in which solid substance which grow in the same crystalline
form are isomorphism. For e.g. Epsom salt (MgSO4.7H2O) and White vitriol
(ZnSO47H20)

Classification of Solids crystals based on nature of bond

Ionic solid (NaCl, CaCO3, AgCl crystal)
Covalent Solid (diamond, graphite, quartz)
Molecular solids (ice, dry ice, iodine) crystal
Metallic Solids (Iron, copper)
Crystallization: The process of preparing the crystals of solid generally by cooling its
saturated solution. It consists of two major events i.e. nucleation and crystal growth.

Super-saturation is the driving force for the crystallization i.e. rate of nucleation and
growth. Depending upon the conditions, solid-liquid equilibrium, either nucleation or
growth may be predominant over the other, as a result crystal with different sizes and
shapes are obtained. It is one of the major challenge in Pharmaceutical industry

Nucleation is the initial process that occurs Crystal growth is a major stage of a
in the formation of a crystal from a crystallization process, and consists of the
solution, a liquid, or a vapour, in which a addition of new atoms, ions, or polymer
small number of ions, atoms, or molecules strings into the characteristic arrangement of
become arranged in a pattern characteristic the crystalline lattice.
of a crystalline solid, forming a site upon
which additional particles are deposited as It is important because crystal growth theory
the crystal grows. provides an ideal testing ground for the
interplay of atomic microscopic and classical
When the solution is exactly saturated macroscopic concepts which is the most
crystal growth stops. practical experimental realities
WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION:
The number of water molecules that is associated with one molecule of
the crystalline solid is called as water of crystallization. For example,
Blue vitriol; CuSO4.5H2O has five water of crystallization, FeSO4.7H2O;
ZnSO4.7H2O, Gypsum, washing soda, Epsom salt etc. are Crystalline
solids with water of crystallization
Crystalline solids without water of crystallization are (NaCl, KNO3, NH4Cl)
CRYSTAL LATTICE AND UNIT CELL:
The regular arrangement of the constituent particles (i.e. atoms, ions or
molecules) of a crystal in three dimensional spaces is called crystal
lattice or space lattice.
The smallest three dimensional portion of a complete space lattice
which when repeated over and again in different directions produces
the complete space lattice is called the unit cell i.e. Fundamental unit of
Crystal lattice is called unit cell i.e. It is the simplest repeating unit in
a crystal structure.
TYPES OF CRYSTAL LATTICE:
 TYPES OF CRYSTAL LATTICE:
Lattice Types Edge Length Angles between faces Examples

Cubic Primitive, Body- a=b=c α = β = γ = 90° NaCl, Copper and ZnS

centered, Face-centered

Tetragonal Primitive, Body-centred a = b ≠ c α = β = γ = 90° White tin, SnO2,

TiO2 and CaSO4

Orthorhombic Primitive, Body-centred, a ≠ b ≠ c α = β = γ = 90° Rhombic Sulphur,

Face-centred , End- BaSO4 and KNO3
centred

Hexagonal Primitive a=b≠c α = β = 90° and γ = 120° Graphite, ZnO and CdS

Rhombohedral Primitive a=b=c α = β = γ ≠ 90° CaCO3 ( Calcite) and

HgS (cinnabar)

Monoclinic Primitive, End-centred a≠b≠c α = γ = 90° β ≠ 90° Sulphur

Triclinic Primitive a≠b≠c α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 900 H3PO3 , CuSO4.5 H2O

1. 50 gm of a saturated solution of NaCl on evaporation gives 20 gm of solid NaCl. Calculate the
solubility of NaCl at that temperature.
Solution,
Wt. of solute = 20 gm
Wt. of solvent = wt of solution – wt of solute = 30 gm
Solubility = X 100 = 66.67

2. 80 gm of saturated solution is cooled from 500C to 300C. Find the weight of solute precipitated
out. Given, solubility at 500C & 300C are 90 and 60.

3. A vessel of capacity 400 cc is filled with chlorine under 80 cm is connected by a narrow tube
and stop-cock with another vessel of capacity 250 cc filled with nitrogen under 100 cm. What
will be the pressure when the stop-cock is opened?

4. How long will it take 500 mL of hydrogen gas to diffuse through a partition if 250 mL of oxygen
diffuse in 50 minutes under similar conditions?

5. When 2 g of gaseous substance A is introduced into an initially evacuated flask at 25 oC, the
pressure is found to be one atmosphere. 3 g of another gas B is then added to it at the same
temperature and pressure. The final pressure is found to be 1.5 atm. Assuming ideal gas
behaviour, calculate the ratio of the molecular weight of A and B.

6. An open vessel contains air at 25oC. At what temperature 75% of the air is expelled at
constant pressure?