AIRCRAFT

TECHNICAL &
GENERAL
Electricity supply
 DEFENITIONS
• V = Potential Difference measured in
VOLTS
• I = Current flowing measured in
AMPERE
• R = Resistance measured in OHM’s

V=IxR
 SYMBOLS
Battery
Ground(Earth)
Switch
Resistor
Capacitor
Diode
Alternator
 A/C BATTERIES
Electricity storage device
Lead /Acid (Sulphuric acid)
Rated in Voltage and Amp Hrs
ie 30 Amp hrs = 15Amp for 2
hrs
30 Amp for 1hrs
10 Amp for 3hrs
Normally 12 or 24 Volts DC
Lead Acid Batteries
 GENERATORS

• Any device that produces electrical

current by creating an
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD between
magnets
• Engine driven
• DIRECT CURRENT
• Mostly on large a/c
• Disadvantage weight & size, low RPM
- not very efficient
 ALTERNATOR
• Smaller, more current than generators
at lower RPM
• Main drawback – ALTERNATING
CURRENT
• AC not used on A/C
• AC changed to DC by a RECTIFIER
(similar to a DIODE)
• Needs battery power for EXCITATION
• Not self-contained
Alternating Current
( ACLoad.).
8

Current In Amps.
2
Zero Value.
0
-2

-5

Alternator.
-8

Switch. Time In Seconds.

Alternating Current
( ACLoad.).
8

5
Max Positive Value.

Current In Amps.
2
0
-2

Max Negative Value.

-5

Alternator.
-8

Switch. Time In Seconds.

Definitions.

Cycle - One complete change of Direction of flow.

Amplitude- The Peak value from the mean reference.

Frequency - The number of complete cycles per Second.

Wavelength - The distance travelled during one Cycle in

meters.
 Cycle.
Cycle.

90º

360º

0º 180º

270º

Cycle - One complete change of Direction of flow.

Definitions.

Cycle - One complete change of Direction of flow.

Amplitude- The Peak value from the mean reference.

Frequency - The number of complete cycles per Second.

Wavelength - The distance travelled during one Cycle in

meters.
 Amplitude.
90º

Amplitude.

360º

0º 180º

Amplitude.
270º

Amplitude - The Peak value from the mean reference.

 Definitions.

Cycle - One Complete Change Of Direction Of flow.

Amplitude- The Peak value from the mean reference.

Frequency - The number of complete cycles per Second.

Wavelength - The distance travelled during one Cycle in

meters.
 Frequency.
1 Second.
1 Cycle. 1 Cycle.

90º 90º

180º 360º 0º 180º 360º

0º

270º 270º

Frequency - The number of complete cycles per Second called Hz.

Definitions.

Cycle - One complete change of Direction of flow.

Amplitude- The Peak value from the mean reference.

Frequency - The number of complete cycles per Second.

Wavelength - The distance travelled during one Cycle in

meters.
 Wavelength.
Distance in Meters to complete one Cycle.

90º

360º

0º 180º

270º

Wavelength - The distance travelled during one Cycle in Meters.

Electricity supply
Circuit protection devices
PROPELLER THEORY
.

figure 2-17-3a Propellers (Colour).swf

• Asymmetric blade effect.
• Gyroscopic effect.
• Slipstream effect.
• Torque reaction.
• Crosswind (weathercock) effect.
Asymmetric blade effect.
 12_2

Constant Speed
Unit
CSU
CSU
CSU
CSU
Underspeed

Fine (Oil Pressure)

CSU
CSU
Types of ice removal

• Fluid
• Mechanical
• Thermal
• Electrical

The areas sensitive to ice accumulation

• Aerofoils.
• Propellers.
• Engine intakes.
• Windscreens.
• Pitot and static heads
Types of ice removal
Hydraulic Fluids

DTD 585
This is a widely used fluid that is coloured red, its
mineral based and therefore requires the system to be
fitted with synthetic rubber seals.

CASTOR or VEGETABLE
These as the name suggest are made from natural
compounds, thus require only rubber seals in the
system and are generally coloured yellow
(colourless).

SKYDROL
Another popular fluid that is coloured purple, and due
to its ingredients requires the system to have butyl
rubber seals.
Hydraulic systems are based on the principle that liquids
are NOT COMPRESSIBLE, and that the transfer of such
liquids can be used to transfer Energy / Force
 Hydraulic Theory

The movement of the piston will depend on the force

that is applied on the piston as a result of fluid
pressure. The force will be equal to the fluid pressure
(P) multiplied by the area over which the pressure is
applied it’s the area of the piston (A). Thus the
resultant mechanical force F = P x A.
 Hydraulic Theory

The basis of a closed hydraulic system consists of a

small piston that applies a force over a area. This
results in a pressure P being transmitted through the
liquid. At the other end of the system is a larger piston
of area. Since the pressure experienced on the face of
this piston is the same as that generated by the smaller
one, it follows that the resultant mechanical force on
the larger piston is equal to the pressure P multiplied
by area. Thus the force F2 is larger than the original
force F1. In effect, the force has been magnified by the
ability of the system to transmit the pressure P.

F=PxA
Brake pedal pressure Higher actuator pressure

F=PxA
Non-return valve (NRV)
Electricity supply
Electricity supply
Circuit protection devices
Lead Acid Batteries
 Landing Gear

“ You know you’ve forgotten to lower the undercarriage when it

takes full power to taxi back to the terminal”
Vapour lock
Landing gear
Oleo struts
SHOCK ABSORBER

The shock absorber has two primary functions, the

first to absorb the compression loads imposed by the
impact of landing, and the second to dampen the
tendency to recoil, that is to say, the shock absorbers
tendency to rapidly extend again immediately after
absorbing the landing impact.

The shock absorber consists primarily of two

cylinders which slide one inside the other much like a
telescope. To prevent one cylinder rotating inside the
other, torque links or toggles are used.
Oleo struts
Shimmy damper
Pneumatic boots
Thermal heating (leading edge)
Instruments
Instrument Overview
It is important to understand which instruments are going to be discussed and where they obtain
their information from. We are going to look at the following instruments
 Pitot – Static Instruments.
Gyroscopic Instruments.
Instrument Overview
It is important to understand which instruments are going to be discussed and
where they obtain their information from. We are going to look at Pitot – Static
Instruments and Gyroscopic Instruments in this syllabus.

Pitot – Static Instruments :

Airspeed Indicator ( ASI ) : supplied by Pitot and Static.

Altimeter : supplied by Static only.
Vertical Speed Indicator ( VSI ) : supplied by Static only.
Pitot Static Instruments
Pitot Static Instruments

ASI VSI ALT

Pitot Heat

Static Port

Pitot Tube
Instrument Overview
It is important to understand which instruments are going to be discussed and where they
obtain their information from. We are going to look at Pitot – Static Instruments and
Gyroscopic Instruments in this syllabus.

Pitot – Static Instruments :

Airspeed Indicator ( ASI ) : supplied by Pitot and Static.

Altimeter : supplied by Static only.
Vertical Speed Indicator ( VSI ) : supplied by Static only.

Gyroscopic Instruments :

Artificial Horizon ( AH ) : supplied by the Vacuum pump only.

Directional Gyro Indicator ( DGI ) : supplied by the Vacuum pump only.
Turn And Slip Indicator : supplied by the Electrical system for the Turn and Gravity for the
Slip.
Gyroscopic Instruments
Pitot Tube
 The basic Pitot probe is mounted where it will not be affected by the disturbed airflow caused by the structure
of the aircraft.

 These errors are not completely removed and are called pressure and position errors. These errors are
corrected during the flight testing.

 Manoeuvre Induced errors also exist at the Pitot probe and Static ports. These errors are caused when the
aircraft’s angle of attack changes and can last for several seconds.

 The Pitot probe measures the air pressure caused by the forward movement of the aircraft also referred to as
total pressure or ram air pressure.

 The faster the aircraft is moving the higher the air pressure in the Pitot tube, therefore the pressure inside the
Pitot tube is directly proportional to airspeed.

 The Pitot probe is also able to measure static pressure. Both Pitot and Static pressure are used to supply the
Airspeed Indicator or ASI. We can now use the formula :

Pitot Pressure = Dynamic Air Pressure + Static Air Pressure

 The Pitot probe is electrically heated to prevent ice accumulation and has drain holes at the bottom of the tube
to prevent water accumulation.
Pitot Tube

Pitot
Pressure
Direction Of Air Flow

Static
Pressure
Static Static
Vent Vent

Pitot Pressure = Dynamic Air Pressure + Static Air Pressure

Pitot Tube
Static Port

 Static pressure is the ambient air pressure at a given point in the atmosphere.

 A Static port or vent is used to measure the ambient pressure acting on the aircraft.

 A Static vent consists of a smooth plate that is flush mounted on either side of the aircraft fuselage.

 Two vents are used to equalise any pressures caused by the yaw of the aircraft.

 An emergency static vent is normally incorporated in the system and is located inside the flight deck in a non-
pressurised aircraft.

 It must be noted that when using this emergency static vent the pressure sensed in the flight deck is normally
lower than ambient static pressure by approximately 10 Mb.
Static Vent
Pitot Static Instruments
Pressure Altimeter Introduction
The Pressure Altimeter is basically an Aneroid Barometer.
An Aneroid Barometer is used to measure the ambient Atmospheric pressure or Static pressure.
This pressure measurement is then used to display aircraft altitude.
The Altimeter is calibrated for ISA conditions.
Pressure Altimeter
The following is a summary of the operation of the Pressure Altimeter

 The Pressure Altimeter measures the ambient Atmospheric pressure or Static pressure.

 The Static pressure is measured by the Static port or vent and is fed into the airtight case of the instrument.

 The Pressure Altimeter has a partially evacuated capsule supported by a leaf spring inside the case.

 As the aircraft climbs the Static pressure decreases and the capsule will expand.

 This expansion is transmitted through the linkages to indicate an increase in altitude.

 As the aircraft descends the Static pressure will increase causing the capsule to contract.

 This contraction is transmitted through the linkages to indicate a decrease in altitude.

 A Bi- Metallic strip is incorporated into the suitable linkages to compensate for the expansion or contraction of
the linkages with temperature changes.
 Pressure Altimeter Construction
Sealed Case

Static Vent
Altimeter Scale

Capsule
Linkages

Static Port Pointer

Baro Correction

Static pressure is measured at the Static port.

As the aircraft climbs the Static pressure decreases and the capsule expands.
This expansion shows an increase in altitude.
As the aircraft descends the Static pressure increases and the capsule will contract.
This contraction shows a decrease in altitude.
The Baro correction is used to compensate for any deviation in ISA conditions.
Altimeter ( ALT ) Errors
Instrument Error :
 These errors are caused by imperfections during manufacture and wear and tear of the instrument.
 There is another consideration, and that is the rate of pressure change of the atmosphere with an increase in
altitude and is assumed to be constant.
 As this assumption is not true the altimeter will be unreliable at higher altitudes.
0 to 5000 Feet equates to approximately 170 Mb.
35000 Feet to 40000 Feet equates to approximately 50 Mb.
60000 Feet to 65000 Feet equates to approximately 15 Mb.

Pressure and Position Error :

 This error is caused by incorrect pressures being sensed at the Static vent due to the disturbed airflow over
the airframe.
 This error is also caused by the disturbed airflow due to the positioning of the Static vent on the airframe.
 These errors are combined and a correction card can be produced.

Manoeuvre Induced Error :

 This error is produced by the changes in aircraft attitude and configuration or when the Static vent is not
aligned with the airflow i.e. a side slip or crabbed flight in crosswind.
Altimeter ( ALT ) Errors
Time Lag Error :
 It may take time for pressure changes at the Static vent to register on the altimeter.
 This is mainly due to the mechanical properties of the instrument.

During a rapid climb the Altimeter lags and therefore under reads.
During a rapid descent the Altimeter lags and therefore over reads.

Barometric Error :
 The Altimeter is calibrated according to ISA conditions for atmospheric pressure.
 If there is a deviation from the ISA pressure conditions an error will occur in the Altimeter indications.
 The pressure error can be corrected for by means of the barometric correction scale.

Temperature Error :
 The Altimeter is calibrated according to ISA conditions for atmospheric temperature.
 If there is a deviation from the ISA temperature conditions an error will occur in the Altimeter.
 The error is small at lower altitudes but significant at higher altitudes.
 This error can be corrected by the altitude window on a navigation computer.
Altitude and Pressure Relationship
 As the aircraft flies from a high pressure area to a low pressure area the atmosphere becomes less dense.
 The Altimeter capsules sense this drop in pressure.
 As the pressure drops the Altimeter capsules start to expand.
 The expansion of the capsules is indicated as an increase in altitude.
 The pilot tries to maintain his assigned altitude and thus starts to descend the aircraft.
 The aircraft is thus moving closer to the ground for a constant assigned or maintained altitude.
 The altimeter over reads.
Altitude and Pressure Relationship
 The aircraft flies from a high temperature area to a low temperature area at a constant Pressure.
 One must remember the QNH setting on the altimeter is a function of pressure at the aircraft reduced to
sea level by means of a formula 1 Mb per 30 Feet assuming ISA pressure gradient.
 In warm air, because of its lower density, the aircraft will have to be higher to obtain the same pressure
difference in Mb from sea level. The altimeter under reads.
 In cold air, because of its high density the displacement of the aircraft for the same Mb change will be less
and the aircraft will be lower to the ground. The altimeter is over reading.
Altitude Definitions
QNE:
 This is the barometric pressure at the ISA reference point of 1013.25 Mb.
 When the QNE is set in the altimeter subscale the altimeter will read the following:
Flight Level i.e. FL 090.
Pressure Altitude i.e. 9000 Feet.
 When QNE is set the altimeter reads altitude above the ISA reference level.

Airfield Pressure
860 Mb
Airfield Elevation
5010 Feet
ISA Reference
1013.25 Mb

QNH is 1027 Mb
Mean Sea Level
 Altimeter Calculation No 3
An aircraft leaves airfield Y, airfield pressure 960 Mb, and the altimeter reads airfield elevation of 1860
Feet. The aircraft lands at airfield Z, elevation 1000 Feet, where the altimeter reads 1270 Feet. What is
the QNH at Z?

Altitude Difference  270 Feet

270 Feet Difference  9 Mb Pressure Difference

To make the Altimeter read correctly  1022 Mb - 9 Mb

QNH at airfeild Z  1013 Mb QNH

QNH 1022 Mb
1022 Mb 1270 Feet

Y
Z
1860 Feet
1000 Feet
QFE 960 Mb 62 Mb
Change
QNH 1013 Mb
QNH 1022 Mb
Sea Level
Pitot Static Instruments
 Airspeed Indicator ( ASI ) Construction

Sealed Case

Capsule

Pitot Tube

Static Vent

Linkages
Airspeed Indicator ( ASI ) Construction

Sealed Case

Static Vent Capsule Static pressure

Pitot Tube Dynamic Linkages Pointer

+
Static

Low 0 High
Airspeed Indicator

Pitot = Dynamic + Static

Dynamic is directly proportional to airspeed

 Airspeed Indicator ( ASI ) Colour Coding

Vso
Vne Stall speed in the
Velocity never landing config
exceeded

Vs1
Yellow Arc Stall speed
Cautionary speed clean
band. In still air
only

White Arc
Vno Flap operating
Maximum normal band
operating speed

Vfe
Green Arc Maximum
Normal operating flap extended
speed band speed
Vertical Speed Indicator ( VSI )

The following is a summary of the operation of the Vertical Speed Indicator ( VSI )

 The Vertical Speed Indicator uses the principal of pressure differential to measure and indicate a rate of climb or
descent.
 A capsule in an airtight case is supplied with Static pressure from the Static vent.
 As the aircraft climb or descends the changing Static pressure is fed directly into the capsule.
 The Static pressure from the Static vent is also fed into the airtight case through a metering unit or a choke.
 The Static pressure is delayed by the choke and thus arrives in the case a few seconds later than the capsule.
 This delay in Static pressure causes a difference in pressure between the capsule and the case.
 This differential pressure causes the capsule to expand or contract depending on whether the aircraft is climbing
or descending.
 This expansion is transmitted through linkages to the indicator.
 The indicator will show a rate of climb or descent in feet per minute.
 In straight and level flight there is no differential and thus a zero indication.
Pitot Static Instruments
 Vertical Speed ( VSI ) Construction

Sealed Case

Capsule

Choke

Static Vent

Linkages
Vertical Speed Indicator ( VSI )

VSI
Pointer

Logarithmic
Scale

VSI
Adjustment
 Gyroscopic Instruments

Gyroscopic Instruments :

Artificial Horizon ( AH ) : supplied by the vacuum pump only.

Directional Gyro Indicator ( DGI ) : supplied by the vacuum pump only.
Turn And Slip Indicator : supplied by the electrical system for the turn and gravity for the slip.
Gyroscopic Instruments
Gyroscopic Instruments
AH

Engine Driven
Vacuum Pump

DGI

Air Filter

Vacuum Gauge
Gyroscopic Instruments
 Artificial Horizon ( AH )

Roll Scale
Angle of Bank
Indicator

Aircraft Symbol

Horizon

Pitch Scale

Pitch Correction
Artificial Horizon Pitch Indication
Fixed Point
In Space

As the aircraft starts to pitch down the case, outer Gimbal and instrument panel pitch
down.
The vertical axis Gyroscope maintains its rigid position in space.
This rigidity causes a movement between the inner and outer Gimbal.
This movement causes the horizon bar to move and the sky plate to move.
 Artificial Horizon Roll Indication
Fixed Point
In Space

As the aircraft starts to roll the vertical axis Gyroscope maintains its rigidity in space.
The aircraft, the aircraft symbol and the roll index move around the vertical axis Gyroscope.
The movement between the aircraft and the Gimbal assembly indicates roll information to the pilot.
Gyroscopic Instruments
 Directional Gyroscope ( DGI )
Sealed Case

Air Driven
Horizontal Axis
Rotor

Inner Gimbal

Outer Gimbal

Gimbal Assembly
Able to Rotate on
Bearing Pivot

Gear Train

Direction Card
Gyroscopic Instruments
Turn And Slip Indicator

Rate One Turn

Reference Markers

Rate Of Turn
Pointer

Rate Gyroscope
Electrical Failure Flag

Calibrated For 360° Turn

In 2 Minutes

Slip Indicator
Turn And Slip Indicator

Force of Gravity
Turn And Slip Indicator
Balanced Turn

Centrifugal
Force

Resultant Force
Force of Gravity
Turn And Slip Indicator
Slip – Excessive
Bank

Centrifugal
Force

Resultant Force
Force of Gravity
Turn And Slip Indicator
Skid – Insufficient
Bank

Centrifugal
Force

Resultant Force
Force of Gravity