Angle Modulation Review

Angle Modulation
It is a type of analog modulation in which the angle sinusoidal
reference function is varied in accordance with a modulation
signal.

1. Frequency Modulation
Two types of Angle Modulation:

2. Phase Modulation
Frequency Modulation
-It is a modulation technique, invented by Edwin
Armstrong, where the information signal is analog
and the frequency of the carrier is varied
proportional to the information signal.
*frequency deviation is proportional only to the
amplitude of modulating signal.
*the frequency of the carrier changed based on
amplitude of modulating signal (maximum
frequency deviation occurs at peak +/- of
modulating signal)
Frequency Modulation
Standard FM Parameters
FM frequency range: 88 - 108 MHz
FM Intermediate Frequency: 10.7 MHz
Standard FM Equation

Where:
= FM signal
= carrier signal peak voltage, V
= carrier signal angular frequency, rad/s
= modulating signal angular frequency, rad/s
= modulating signal frequency, Hz
= frequency deviation, Hz
t = time, s
= , rad/s
f = frequency, Hz
Frequency Deviation
It is the amount of change in carrier frequency
produced by the modulating signal.

Where:
= modulating signal peak voltage, V
= frequency modulator sensitivity, Hz/V
= frequency deviation, Hz
FM Modulation Index (m)
It is the ratio of frequency deviation and the modulating
signal frequency.
It determines the number of significant pairs of sidebands in
an FM signal.

Where:
= modulating index, unitless
= modulating signal frequency, Hz
= frequency deviation, Hz
Note: the higher the modulation index, the wider the
bandwidth
Note: as is varied, m is also varied and vice-versa
Sidebands
Theoretically, there are infinite number of
sidebands in FM, so the ideal bandwidth for FM is
infinite. However, other sidebands are insignificant
so they are neglected.

A side frequency is not considered significant

unless it has an amplitude equal to or greater than
1% of the unmodulated carrier amplitude.
Deviation Ratio
It is the worst case modulation index.

Where:
= deviation ratio, unitless
= maximum frequency deviation, Hz
= maximum modulating signal frequency, Hz

Note: maximum sidebands will be included and therefore

maximum bandwidth will be consumed
FM Percent Modulation
It is the ratio of the frequency deviation actually
produced to the maximum frequency deviation
allowed by law stated in percent form.

Where:
= percentage modulation, %
= maximum frequency deviation, Hz
= frequency swing; frequency deviation, Hz
Note: is different in every application i.e. TV broadcasting, it
is better to have a %m of less than 100% to avoid adjacent
channel interference.
FM Percent Modulation

Note: the only difference between the audio signal of FM and

TV broadcast is their frequency deviation .
Maximum frequency deviation
In FM, the maximum frequency deviation allowed
is with a maximum modulating signal frequency of
.
Carrier Swing
-It is the peak-to-peak frequency deviation.
-It is the total variation in frequency of the carrier.

Where:
= carrier swing, Hz
= frequency swing; frequency deviation, Hz
Carrier Swing

Where:
= carrier frequency
= max. frequency change of the carrier
= min. frequency change of the carrier
Frequency Multiplier

Frequency Multiplier:
FM Bandwidth

Carson’s Rule or Approximate BW - It defines a bandwidth that

includes approximately 98% of the total power in the modulated wave.
(it includes significant sidebands with amplitude 2% higher than that
of the carrier)

Narrowband FM (NBFM) – An FM system with relatively low

modulation index . ; (App: Mobile Comm.)

Wideband FM (WBFM) - An FM system with relatively high

modulation index . ; (App: Broadcasting)

Theoretical BW: N = no. of pairs of sidebands and it is dependent on

m.
FM Bandwidth

Note: The maximum number of pairs of significant

sidebands is theoretically INFINITE.

Note: Government regulations limit the bandwidth

of FM transmissions in terms of maximum
frequency deviation and the maximum modulation
frequency.
Two Important Receiver
Characteristics:
Sensitivity – Ability of Rx, still process weak
signals.
Selectivity – Ability of Rx, reject unwanted
frequencies.

Note: The greater the number of tuned circuits, the

higher the Q(quality factor), the more narrower the
passband, the higher the selectivity.
FM Generation

Direct FM - the output is already an FM signal

1. Reactance modulator – it has a reactance tube

that presents inductive or capacitive reactance
2. Varactor diode modulator – it utilizes a voltage-
variable capacitor diode (varactor diode/varicap)
3. Crosby modulator (commonly used) – provide
AFC (Automatic Frequency Control)
4. Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
FM Generation

Indirect FM – the signal is first phase-modulated before

producing the FM signal

Armstrong modulator – it uses crystal oscillator for

frequency stability with a phase modulated buffer stage.
- It provides frequency accuracy and stability

Disadvantage:
-produced low frequency value
Solution: use frequency multiplier
Application: Broadcasting
FM Detection

1. Slope Detector
2. Round-Travis Detector
3. Foster-Seeley Discriminator
4. Ratio Detector
5. Quadrature Detector
6. Phase Locked Loop
FM Detection

1. Slope Detector
-it is an FM detection method in which a frequency-
modulated signal is fed to a circuit that is tuned to receive
the signal in the slope of the response curve.
2. Round-Travis Detector
-it uses two slope detectors
3. Foster-Seeley Discriminator
-it is also known as the center tapped or phase discriminator.
-it is an FM detection method wherein changes in the
magnitude of the input signal will give rise to the amplitude
changes in the resulting output voltage.
FM Detection

4. Ratio Detector
-it is a variation of the Foster-Seeley discriminator which includes
an amplitude limiter.
-its output is one-half that of the Foster-Seeley Discriminator.
5. Quadrature Detector
-it is also known as the coincidence detector.
-it extracts the original information signal from the composite IF
waveform by multiplying two quadrature signals.
6. Phase Locked Loop (PLL)
-it is the simplest and easiest to understand FM detector.
-it is a closed-loop feedback control system.
-it requires no tuned circuits.
FM Transmitter

Audio signal may be an output from microphone in which

sound is converted to electrical signal.
Pre-amplifier - boosts the level of the modulating signal.
High Pass Filter - acts as a pre-emphasis network to filter
out the noise and improve the signal to noise ratio.
RF oscillator - generates a high frequency carrier, which is
sent to the modulator along with the modulating signal.
FM Transmitter

FM Modulator - converts the audio signal into a radio signal

which is to be transmitted.
Frequency Multiplier – it could be several stages which is used
to increase the operating frequency.
Power Amplifier - is used at the end to increase the power of the
modulated signal.
Antenna – converts electrical signal to electromagnetic wave
signal in transmitter.
FM Receiver
Antenna - converts the em wave
signal into electrical signal in
receiver.
RF Tuner Circuit – is nothing but a
LC circuit, which is also called as
resonant or tank circuit. It selects
the desired frequency. It also tunes
the local oscillator and the RF filter
at the same time.
RF-IF converter – it acts as a mixer,
having the received signal as one
input and the local oscillator
frequency as the other input.
IF Filter – is a band pass filter,
FM Receiver
Amplitude Limiter – it maintains the
amplitude of FM wave as constant
by removing the unwanted peaks of
the noise signal.
FM Demodulator – frequency
variations of modulated signals are
converted to amplitude variations
first, with the help of tuned circuit
(discriminator).
De-emphasis Network – is a Low
pass filter after FM Demodulator.
Audio Amplifier – it increased the
power level of the signal.
Loud Speaker – it converts the
Phase-Locked Loop

PLL - is primarily used in

tracking the phase and frequency of the
carrier component of an incoming FM signal.

3 main blocks in a PLL

1. Phase detector
2. Active LPF
3. VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator)
PLL Functional Blocks

Phase Detector
-it is a non-linear device with two
input signals: an externally generated
frequency and the VCO output frequency.
Output: 2 voltages with high and low input sum
and difference frequencies.
PLL Functional Blocks

Loop Filter
-it helps establish the proper transient
response and the required filtering
Output: the high frequency component will be
eliminated and the phase is called the phase error
Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
-it is an oscillator with a stable frequency of oscillation
that depends on the external bias voltage.
Output frequency of the VCO is directly proportional to
the input signal.
PLL Loop Operation States

Free-running State
-it is the PLL state when there is no external input frequency or the
feedback loop is open.
Preset/natural free-running frequency – is the VCO’s output
frequency when the PLL is not locked

Capture State
-it is the state when the PLL is in the process of acquiring frequency
lock

Lock State
-it is the state when the VCO output frequency is locked onto the
frequency of the external input signal.
PLL Key Parameters

Lock Range
-it is also known as tracking
range, which is defined as the
range of frequencies in the
vicinity of the VCO’s
natural frequency over
which the PLL can maintain
lock with an input signal.

Hold-in Range
-it is the lock range
expressed as a peak value.
PLL Key Parameters

Capture Range
-it is also known as acquisition
range, which is defined as the
band of frequencies in the vici-
nity of the natural frequency
where the PLL can establish or
acquire lock with an input
signal.

Pull-in Range
-it is the half of capture range
expressed as a peak value.
Emphasis Networks

Pre-Emphasis Network
- It acts as a high pass filter.
- High-frequency modulating signals are emphasized or boosted
in amplitude in the transmitter prior to performing modulation.
- It is used in transmitter circuits.
De-Emphasis Network
- It acts as a low pass filter.
- It restores the original amplitude-versus-frequency
characteristics to the information signals.
- It is used receiver circuits.
Note: The standard cut-off frequency used for the filters in the
emphasis networks is 2122 Hz.
Capture Effect

- It is the inherent ability of an FM receiver to diminish the

effects of interfering signals.
Threshold Effect

- It is the noise-reduction effect that occurs with strong FM

signals.
Limiter

- It is also known as clipper.

- It is used to remove sporadic, high-amplitude noise
transients of short duration.
- It is a special circuit that removes the unwanted
amplitude variations.
Advantages & Disadvantages of FM
over AM
Advantages:
1. Capture Effect
2. Noise Immunity
3. Transmitter Efficiency
Note: In FM, the total transmitted power always remains
constant. Disadvantages:
1. Consumes more bandwidth.
2. Used more complex circuitry.
Example

A difference between AM and FM receiver block

diagrams is that the FM version includes a:

a) limiter
b) discriminator
c) de-emphasis network
d) all of these
Example

What determines the number of significant

sidebands in an FM signal?

a) frequency deviation
b) modulation index
c) modulating frequency
d) modulating voltage
Example

An FM signal has a total available bandwidth of

1MHz with a 75 kHz frequency deviation. If the
baseband frequency employed is at maximum,
calculate the number of available channels?

a) 4
b) 5
c) 6
d) 7
Example

Tendency of an FM receiver to receive the

strongest signal and reject others refers to:

a) selectivity
b) sensitivity
c) capture effect
d) blocking
Example

Why are image frequencies somewhat less of a

problem in FM receivers than they are in SSB or
AM receivers?

a) SSB uses less bandwidth than does FM

b) FM signals have a capture effect characteristics
c) FM mixer stages are square-law devices
d) FM receivers do not use the superheterodyne
design
Example

In FM, the sideband is significant if it is at least

greater than or equal to _____ of the peak carrier
voltage.

a) 1%
b) 5%
c) 10%
d) 20%
Example

Indicate which one of the following is not an

advantage of FM over AM.

a) Better noise immunity is provided

b) Lower bandwidth is required
c) Transmitted power is more useful
d) Less modulating power is required
Example

What is the result of overdeviation in an FM

transmitter?

a) Out-of-channel emissions
b) Increased transmitter power
c) Increased transmitter range
d) Poor carrier suppression
Example

The bandwidth of an FM signal is considered to be

limited because:

a) There can only be a finite number of sidebands

b) It is equal to the frequency deviation
c) It is band-limited at the receiver
d) The power in the outer sidebands is negligible
Example

Why is FM voice best for local VHF/UHF radio

communications?

a) It has high-fidelity audio which can be

understood even when the signal is somewhat
weak
b) The carrier is not detectable
c) It is more resistant to distortion
d) Its RF carrier stays on frequency better than the
AM modes
Example

The bandwidth of an FM signal requires 10 times

the bandwidth of the:

a) Carrier signal
b) Modulating signal
c) Bipolar signal
d) Sampling signal
Example

An FM detector that is not sensitive to amplitude

variations is:

a) Foster-Seeley detector
b) A quadrature detector
c) A PLL detector
d) All of the above
Example

You are transmitting FM on the 2 metre band. Several

stations advise you that your transmission is distorted. A
quick check with a frequency counter tells you that the
transmitter is on the proper frequency. Which of the
following is the most probable cause of the distortion?

a) The frequency deviation of your transmitter is set too

high
b) The power supply output voltage is low
c) The repeater is reversing your sidebands
d) The frequency counter is giving an incorrect reading
Example

AM and FM are examples of:

a) Digital-to-analog modulation
b) Digital-to-digital modulation
c) Analog-to-analog modulation
d) Analog-to-digital modulation
Example

Find the carrier and modulating frequencies, the

modulation index and the maximum deviation of
the FM wave represented by the voltage equation
.

a) 95 MHz, 199 Hz, 5, 995 Hz

b) 199 MHz, 95 Hz, 5, 995 Hz
c) 95 MHz, 199 Hz, 6, 95 Hz
d) 199 MHz, 995 Hz, 6, 95 Hz
Example

An FM modulator has and operates at carrier

frequency of . Find the output frequency for an
instantaneous value of the modulating signal equal
to .

a) 190 MHz
b) 185.7 MHz
c) 174.94 MHz
d) 125 MHz
Example

Which is the disadvantage of direct FM

generation?

a) the need for an AFC circuit

b) the need for an AGC circuit
c) two balanced modulators are required
d) the use of a class A amplifier which is very
inefficient
Example

If an FM transmitter has two doublers and one

tripler, what is the carrier swing when the
oscillator deviates ?

a) 36kHz
b) 24kHz
c) 2kHz
d) 48kHz
Example

Determine the bandwidth of a narrowband FM

signal which is generated by a 4 kHz audio signal
modulating a 125 MHz carrier.

a) 8 kHz
b) 40 kHz
c) 2 MHz
d) 22 MHz
Example

Determine the rest frequency of a frequency-

modulated signal modulated by a 3 kHz sine wave
reaching a maximum frequency of 200.02 MHz and
minimum frequency of 199.98 MHz.

a) 20 kHz
b) 100 MHz
c) 40 kHz
d) 200 MHz
Example

Determine the frequency deviation of a frequency-

modulated signal modulated by a 3 kHz sine wave
reaching a maximum frequency of 200.02 MHz and
minimum frequency of 199.98 MHz.

a) 20 kHz
b) 100 MHz
c) 40 kHz
d) 200 MHz
Example

Using Carson’s rule, what is the bandwidth of an

FM signal with 5 kHz maximum frequency
deviation and 2.5 kHz maximum modulating
frequency?

a) 5 kHz
b) 10 kHz
c) 15 kHz
d) 20 kHz
Example

What is the frequency swing of an FM broadcast

transmitter when modulated 70%?

a) 42.5 kHz
b) 72.5 kHz
c) 62.5 kHz
d) 52.5 kHz
Example

A portable radio transmitter has to operate at

temperatures from to degrees C. If its signal is
derived from a crystal oscillator with a temperature
coefficient of +1 ppm per degree Centigrade, and it
transmits at exactly 250 MHz at 20 degrees C, find
the transmitting frequency at 45 degrees C.

a) 250.00625 MHz
b) 251.00625 MHz
c) 252.00625 MHz
Example

What frequency deviation is caused by noise in an

FM receiver which has an input S/N of and a
modulating frequency of 2 kHz?

a) 579.7 Hz
b) 679.7 Hz
c) 779.7 Hz
d) 479.7 Hz
Example

What phase-locked loop VCO has a free-running

frequency of 12 MHz. As the frequency of the
reference input is gradually raised from zero, the
loop locks at 10 MHz and comes out lock again at
16 MHz. Find the capture range and lock range.

a) 4 MHz and 6 MHz

b) 4 MHz and 8 MHz
c) 6 MHz and 8 MHz
d) 6 MHz and 10 MHz
Example

A pre-emphasis circuit provides extra noise

immunity by:

a) boosting the bass frequencies

b) amplifying the higher audio frequencies
c) pre-amplifying the whole audio band
d) converting PM to FM
Example

Compare to AM, FM signals are always generated:

a) at a higher level
b) by a series of class C amplifiers
c) at a lower level
d) by a series of linear amplifiers
Phase Modulation (PM)

It is a modulation technique where the information signal

is analog and the phase of the carrier is varied
-

proportional to the information signal (it is similar to FM

with a phase shift of ).
It is often referred to as indirect FM.
Frequency deviation is proportional to both amplitude
-

and frequency of modulating signal.

-

Phase of carrier is changed by variations in modulating

signal (maximum phase shift and frequency deviation
•

occurs at zero crossing point of modulating signal).

Phase Modulation (PM)
Standard PM Equation

Where:
= PM signal
= carrier signal peak voltage, V
= carrier signal angular frequency, rad/s
= modulating signal angular frequency, rad/s
= phase deviation, rad
= time, s
= , rad/s
= frequency, Hz
Phase Deviation

It is the relative angular displacement of the carrier phase

in radians in respect to the reference phase.

Where:
= phase deviation, rad
= phase deviation constant, rad/V
= modulating signal peak voltage, V
PM Modulation Index

Note: as is varied, m is constant bec it negates the change

by
Where:
= modulation index
= phase deviation, rad
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Angle Modulation
Advantages
- Noise immunity
- Signal-to-noise improvement
- Capture effect
- Power utilization and efficiency

Disadvantages
- Wider bandwidth
- Circuit complexity and cost
Classifications of Emissions and
Necessary Bandwidths
Necessary bandwidth shall be expressed by three numerals and one
letter.
between 0.001 and 999 Hz shall be expressed in Hz (letter H);
between 1.00 and 999 kHz shall be expressed in kHz (letter K);
between 1.00 and 999 MHz shall be expressed in MHz (letter M);
between 1.00 and 999 GHz shall be expressed in GHz (letter G).
Examples:
0.002 Hz = H002 6 kHz = 6K00 1.25 MHz = 1M25
0.1 Hz = H100 12.5 kHz = 12K5 2 MHz = 2M00
25.3 Hz = 25H3 180.4 kHz = 180K 10 MHz = 10M0
400 Hz = 400H 180.5 kHz = 181K 202 MHz = 202M
2.4 kHz = 2K40 180.7 kHz = 181K 5.65 GHz = 5G65
Basic characteristics
1) First symbol – Type of modulation of the main carrier
1.1) Emission of an unmodulated carrier
N
1.2) Emission in which the main carrier is amplitude-modulated (including cases
where sub-carriers are angle-modulated)
1.2.1) Double-sideband
A
1.2.2) Single-sideband, full carrier
H
1.2.3) Single-sideband, reduced or variable level carrier
R
1.2.4) Single-sideband, suppressed carrier
J
1.2.5) Independent sidebands B
1.2.6) Vestigial sideband
C
1.3) Emission in which the main carrier is angle-modulated
1.3.1) Frequency modulation F
Basic characteristics
1.5) Emission of pulses
1.5.1) Sequence of unmodulated pulses
P
1.5.2) A sequence of pulses
1.5.2.1) modulated in amplitude
K
1.5.2.2) modulated in width/duration L
1.5.2.3) modulated in position/phase M
1.5.2.4) in which the carrier is angle-modulated during the
angle-period of the pulse
Q
1.5.2.5) which is a combination of the foregoing or is produced by
other
means V
1.6) Cases not covered above, in which an emission consists of the main carrier
modulated, either simultaneously or in a pre-established sequence, in a
combination of two
or more of the following modes: amplitude, angle, pulse
Basic characteristics
2) Second symbol – Nature of signal(s) modulating the main carrier
2.1) No modulating signal
0
2.2) A single channel containing quantized or digital information without the use of
a modulating sub- carrier3
1
2.3) A single channel containing quantized or digital information with the use of a
modulating sub- carrier3
2
2.4) A single channel containing analogue information
3
2.5) Two or more channels containing quantized or digital information
7
2.6) Two or more channels containing analogue information
8
2.7) Composite system with one or more channels containing quantized or digital
information, together with one or more channels containing analogue information
9
Basic characteristics
3) Third symbol – Type of information to be transmitted
3.1) No information transmitted
N
3.2) Telegraphy – for aural reception
A
3.3) Telegraphy – for automatic reception
B
3.4) Facsimile C
3.5) Data transmission, telemetry, telecommand
D
3.6) Telephony (including sound broadcasting)
E
3.7) Television (video) F
3.8) Combination of the above W
3.9) Cases not otherwise covered
X
Basic characteristics
4) Fourth symbol – Details of signal(s)
4.1) Two-condition code with elements of differing numbers and/or durations
A
4.2) Two-condition code with elements of the same number and duration without
error-correction
B
4.3) Two-condition code with elements of the same number and duration with
error-correction
C
4.4) Four-condition code in which each condition represents a signal element
(or one or more bits) D
4.5) Multi-condition code in which each condition represents a signal element
(of one or more bits) E
4.6) Multi-condition code in which each condition or combination of conditions
represents a character
F
4.7) Sound of broadcasting quality (monophonic)
G
Basic characteristics
4.10) Sound of commercial quality with the use of frequency inversion or band-
splitting K
4.11) Sound of commercial quality with separate frequency-modulated signals to
control
the level of demodulated signal
L
4.12) Monochrome M
4.13) Colour N
4.14) Combination of the above
W
4.15) Cases not otherwise covered
X
5) Fifth symbol – Nature of multiplexing
5.1) None N
5.2) Code-division multiplex C
5.3) Frequency-division multiplex
F
5.4) Time-division multiplex T
Example

When the modulating signal amplitude crosses

zero, the phase shift and frequency deviation in a
phase modulator

a) are at a maximum
b) are at a minimum
c) are at zero
d) will vary from maximum to minimum and vice-
versa
Example

When the modulating frequency is changed the PM

modulation index:

a) will automatically increase

b) will automatically decrease
c) also change
d) remain constant
Example

Which symbol in radio signal emission designation

is referred to type of modulation of the main
carrier?

a) second
b) fourth
c) third
d) first
Example

First symbol in the designation of radio signals

emission which refers to use of an unmodulated
carrier.

a) J
b) N
c) H
d) A
Example

A third symbol emission which represent data

transmission including telemetry and
telecommand.

a) B
b) D
c) C
d) N
Example

What is the numerical value of the bandwidth

designator 24G5?

a) 245 GHz
b) 24.5 GHz
c) 24.5 MHz
d) 245 MHz
Example

The primary advantage of phase modulation over

frequency modulation is that phase modulation has
better carrier:

a) Power stability
b) Amplitude stability
c) Frequency stability
d) Directional stability
Example

Describe the total power in an angle-modulated

wave:

a) The total power is equal to the sum of the

unmodulated carrier power and total sideband
b) The total power is equal to the power of the
sidebands
c) The total power is equal to the power of the
unmodulated carrier
d) The total power is equal to the product of the
Example

What emission is produced by a reactance

modulator connected to an RF amplifier?

a) Multiplex modulation
b) Amplitude modulation
c) Pulse modulation
d) Phase modulation
Example

To demodulate a phase-modulated signal, which, if

any of the following types of demodulators may be
used?

a) peak
b) quadrature
c) series-diode
d) none of the above
Example

An FM communications transmitter has a

maximum frequency deviation of 5 kHz and a
range of modulating frequencies from 300 Hz to 3
kHz. What is the maximum phase shift that it
produces?

a) 17.6 rad
b) 16.7 rad
c) 17.8 rad
d) 18.7 rad
Example

A PM signal has a modulation index of 2, with a

modulating signal that has amplitude of 100 mV
and a frequency of 4 kHz. What would be the effect
on the modulation index of changing the frequency
to 5 kHz?

a) 1.9
b) 2.0
c) 3.1
d) 1.6
Example

An FM communications system has a sensitivity of .

How much phase deviation does it produce within
a sine wave input of 5 V peak at a frequency of 2
kHz?

a) 2.5 radians
b) 8.5 radian
c) 7.5 radians
d) 3.5 radians
Example

Calculate the amount of frequency deviation

caused by a limited noise spike that still causes an
undesired phase shift of 35 degrees when the input
frequency is 5 kHz.

a) 1.05 kHz
b) 2.05 kHz
c) 3.05 kHz
d) 4.05 kHz
THANK YOU!
End