Chapter 1 & 2: Basic Concepts

1. Systems of Units
2. Electric Charge
3. Current
4. Voltage
5. Power and Energy
6. Linearity Property
7. Circuit Elements
8. Ohm’s Law
9. Summary
1
 1.1 System of Units (1)

Six basic SI units

Quantity Basic unit Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic kelvin K
temperature

Luminous intensity candela cd

2
4
1.1 System of Units (2)

3
5
 1.2 Electric Charges

• Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of

which matter consists, measured in coulombs (C).
• The charge e on one electron is negative and equal in
magnitude to 1.602  10-19 C which is called as electronic
charge. In 1 C of charge, there are 1/(1.602  10-19 C) = 6.24
 1018 electrons.
• The charges that occur in nature are integral multiples of the
electronic charge.
• Law of conservation of charge: Charge can neither be created
nor destroyed, only transferred.

4
 1.3 Current (1)

• Electric current i = dq/dt. The unit of ampere can be derived

as 1 A = 1C/s.

• A direct current (dc) is a current

that remains constant with time.
• An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies with time.
(reverse direction)

5
 1.3 Current (2)

• The direction of current flow

Positive current follow Negative current follow

Positive ions Negative ions

6
 1.3 Current (3)
Example
A conductor has a constant current of 5A.
How many electrons pass a fixed point on the conductor in
one minute?

Solution
Total no. of charges pass in 1 min is given by
5 A = (5 C/s)(60 s/min) = 300C/min

Total no. of electronics pass in 1 min is given

300 C/min 21
 1.8710 electrons/min
1.602 1019 C/electron
7
 1.4 Voltage
• Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move
a unit charge through an element, measured in volts (V).

• Mathematically, vab  dw / dq (volt)

– w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulomb (C).

• Electric voltage, vab, is always across the circuit

element or between two points in a circuit.
– vab > 0 means the potential of a is higher than potential of b.
– vab < 0 means the potential of a is lower than potential of b.
8
 1.5 Power and Energy (1)

• Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy,

measured in watts (W).
dw dw dq
• Mathematical expression: p     vi
dt dq dt

Passive sign convention

P = + vi p = – vi
absorbing power supplying power
9
1.5 Power and Energy (2)

power absorbed =  power supplied

10
 1.5 Power and Energy (3)

• Law of conservation of energy

p  0

• Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

t t
ematical expression w   pdt   vidt
t t 0 0

11
 2.1 Linearity Property (1)
‐ Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear
relationship between cause and effect.
‐ Linearity is a combination of both the homogeneity (scaling)
property and additivity property

 Scaling: v = i R → k v = k i R
 Additivity: v1 = i1 R & v2 = i2 R
→ v = (i1 + i2) R = v1 + v2

A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly

proportional) to its input.
Note: A resistor is a linear element, but the relationship btw
power and voltage (or current) is nonlinear. 14
 2.1 Linearity Property (2)
Example: By assume Io = 1 A, use linearity to find the actualvalue
of Io in the circuit.

13
 2.1 Linearity Property (3)
Example
Now let us consider an element: v = i2
→ Determine whether this device is linear.
Solution
The response to a current i1 is v1 = i1 2
The response to a current i2 is v2 = i1 2
The sum of these responses is v1 + v2 = i1 2+ i1 2
The response to i1 + i2 is
(i1 + i2)2 = i1 2+ 2i1i2 + i1 2
Because i12+ i1 ≠ (i1 + i2) 2 , the principle of superposition is not
satisfied. Therefore, the device is nonlinear.

14
 2.2 Circuit Elements (1)

Active Elements Passive Elements

•A dependent source is an active

element in which the source quantity
is controlled by another voltage or
current.
Independent Dependent • They have four different types: VCVS,
sources sources CCVS, VCCS, CCCS. Keep in minds the
signs of dependent sources. 17
 2.2 Circuit Elements (2)
• An element is said to be passive if the total energy delivered to
it from the rest of the circuit is always nonnegative (zero or
positive).
• A passive element absorbs energy.
• An element is said to be active if it is capable of delivering
energy.
• An active element is capable of supplying energy.

Fig. (a) The entry node of the current I is

the positive node of the voltage v ; (b)
the entry node of the current I is the
negative node of the voltage v. The
current flows from the entry node to the
exit node.
18
 2.2 Circuit Elements (3)
• A source is a voltage or current generator INDEPENDENT SOURCES

capable of supplying energy to a circuit.

• An independent source is a voltage or current
generator not dependent on other circuit
variables.
• The voltage of an ideal voltage source is given
to be a specified function, say v(t). The current is determined
by the rest of the circuit.
• The current of an ideal current source is given to be a specified
function, say i(t). The , voltage is determined by the rest of the
circuit.
• An ideal source is a voltage or a current generator independent
of the current through the voltage source or the voltage across
the current source. 19
2.2 Circuit Elements (4)
DEPENDENT SOURCES

18
 2.2 Circuit Elements (5)
Example
Obtain the voltage v in the branch for i2 = 1 A .

Solution
Voltage v is the sum of the current‐independent 10-V source
and the current‐dependent voltage source vx.
Note that the factor 15 multiplying the control current carries
the units Ω.
Therefore, v = 10 + vx = 10 + 15(1) = 25 V
19
 2.2 Circuit Elements (6)

Fig. (a) A symbol for a transistor. (b) A model of the transistor.

(c) A transistor amplifier. (d) A model of the transistor amplifier.
20
 2.2 Circuit Elements (7)
• Open circuit Short circuit

• Voltmeter Ammeter

21
 2.2 Circuit Elements (8)
Example: Power and Dependent Sources
Determine the power absorbed by the VCVS

Solution
The voltmeter measures vc = 2V.
The voltage of the controlled
voltage source is vd = 2 vc = 4 V.
The ammeter measures id = 1.5 A.
The element current, id , and voltage, vd, adhere to the passive
convention.
→ p = idvd = 1.5×4 = 6W is the power absorbed by the VCVS.
22
 2.3 Ohms Law (1)

• Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the

flow of electric charge. This ability to resist current is known as
resistance and is represented by the symbol R. The resistance of
any material with a uniform cross‐sectional area A depends on A
Av
and its length ℓ, i
l
where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm‐meters.

23
 2.3 Ohms Law (2)

• Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a resistor is directly

proportional to the current i flowing through the resistor R.
• Mathematically,
v  iR
• Two extreme possible values of R: 0 and  are related with two
basic circuit concepts: short circuit and open circuit.

24
 2.3 Ohms Law (3)
• Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric
current; it is the reciprocal of resistance R and is measured in
mhos or siemens. 1 i
G 
R v
ower dissipated by a resistor:
2 2
v i
p  vi  i 2
R
2
v G
• Notes: R G

25
 2.4 Summary (1)
• The engineer uses models, called circuit elements, to represent
the devices that make up a circuit. In this book, we consider only
linear elements or linear models of devices. A device is linear if it
satisfies the properties of both superposition and homogeneity.
• The relationship between the reference directions of the current
and voltage of a circuit element is important. The voltage polarity
marks one terminal + and the other ‐. The element voltage and
current adhere to the passive convention if the current is
directed from the terminal marked + to the terminal marked ‐.
• Resistors arc widely used as circuit elements. When the resistor
voltage and current adhere to the passive convention, resistors
obey Ohm's law; the voltage across the terminals of the resistor
is related to the current into the positive terminal as v = Ri. The
power delivered to a resistance is p = i2R = v2/R watts. 28
 2.4 Summary (2)
• An independent source provides a current or a voltage
independent of other circuit variables. The voltage of an
independent voltage source is specified, but the current is not.
Conversely, the current of an independent current source is
specified whereas the voltage is not.
• A dependent source provides a current (or a voltage) that is
dependent on another variable elsewhere in the circuit.
• The short circuit and open circuit are special cases of
independent sources. A short circuit is an ideal voltage source
having v(t) = 0.
• An open circuit is an ideal current source having i(t) = 0. Open
circuits and short circuits can also be described as special cases of
resistors. A resistor with resistance R = 0 (G = ∞) is a short circuit.
A resistor with conductance G = 0 (R = ∞) is an open circuit. 29
 2.4 Summary (3)
• An ideal ammeter measures the current following though its
terminals and has zero voltage across its terminals. An ideal
voltmeter measures the voltage across its terminals and has
terminal current equal to zero. Ideal voltmeters act like open
circuits, and ideal ammeters act like short circuits.
• Transducers are devices that convert physical quantities, such as
rotational position, to an electrical quantity such as voltage. In
this chapter, we describe two transducers: potentiometers and
temperature sensors.
• Switches are widely used in circuits to connect and disconnect
elements and circuits. They can also be used to create
discontinuous voltages or currents

30