Skeletal System

Anatomy & Physiology

Unit-IV

Muhammad Waqas
Lecturer
INS-SUIT
 Objectives
At the end of this session the students will be able to:
•Define skeletal system
•List the functions of the skeletal system
•Discuss the structure, types and functions of bones
•Identify the bones of axial & appendicular skeleton
•Describe the various markings on the surface of bones
•Identify Cranial sutures and fontanels
•Describe the bones of:
•Skull
•Vertebral column
•Rib cage
• Support- framework that supports body and
cradles its soft organs.
• Protection- delicate organs, heart, lungs, brain.
• Movement- bones act as levers for muscles.
• Blood cell formation- hemopoiesis
• Mineral storage- Calcium & phosphate
• Acid-base balance: Buffering capacity by
absorbing and releasing alkaline salts.
• Detoxification: Temporarily stores heavy metals
•
• Long Bones- humerus, radius, ulna, femur,
tibia, fibula, metacarpals, metatarsals,
phalanges,
• Short Bones- usually cuboidal, e.g. carpals
(except pisiform), tarsals (except calcaneus)
• Flat Bones- cranial, scapula, ribs, sternum.
• Irregular Bones- vertebrae, hip bones,
some facial bones, calcaneus.
• Sesamoid- patella, pisiform, etc.
 Structure of Bone
A typical long bone consists of:
1. Diaphysis (=growing b/w) is the bone’s shaft or
body which is the main long portion of bone.
2. Epiphyses (=growing over; singular is epiphysis) are
the proximal and distal ends of bone.
3. Metaphyses (meta=b/w; singular is metaphysis) are
the regions b/w diaphysis and epiphysis. In a growing
bone, each metaphysis includes an epiphyseal plate
which is a layer of hyaline cartilage that allows the
diaphysis to grow in length. When a bone stops its
growth in length about the age of 21, the cartilage in
the epiphyseal plate is replaced by bone which is then
called epiphyseal line.
Metaphysis
 Structure of Bone cont…
4. Articular Cartilage is a thin layer of hyaline cartilage
covering the epiphyseal ends to form articulation (joint) with
another bone.
5. Periosteum is a fibrous dense irregular connective tissue
which covers the bone surfaces between the articular
cartilages.
•Periosteum helps in protection, fracture repair, and
attachment of ligaments and tendons.
6. Medullary Cavity/marrow cavity is a hollow cylindrical
space within the diaphysis which contains fatty yellow bone
marrow in adults.
7. Endosteum is a connective tissue thin layer that lines the
medullary cavity.
 Bone Surface Markings
• Bones have functional surface markings.
• Two major types of surface markings are:
1. Depressions and Openings—to form joints or
allow the passage of blood vessels and nerves.
2. Processes (projections or outgrowths) either help
form joints or serve as attachment points for
connective tissue like ligaments and tendons.
 Bone Surface Markings/Features
Marking Description Example
Fissure Narrow slit Superior orbital fissure
Foramen (=hole) Opening Foramen magnum
Fossa Shallow depression Lacrimal fossa
Sulcus (=groove) Furrow along a bone surface Intertubercular sulcus of
humerus
Meatus (=passageway) Tube-like opening External auditory meatus
Processes forming joints
Condyle (knuckle) Large round protuberance Lateral condyle of the femur
Facet Smooth flat articular surface Articular facets of vertebrae
Head Prominent end of bone Head of Femur
Process forming attachments
Crest Prominent ridge Illiac Crest
Epicondyle Projection above a condyle Medial epicondyle of femur
Trochanter Large projection Femur trochanter
Tubercle (=knob) Small rounded projection Greater tubercle of humerus
Tuberosity Large rounded projection Tibial Tuberosity
 Histology of bone tissue
• Bone or osseous tissue contains an abundant
extracellular matrix which consists of about 25%
water, 25% collagen fibers, and 50% crystalized
mineral salts.
• The most abundant mineral salt is calcium
phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2]. It combines with another
mineral salt, calcium hydroxide, to form crystals of
hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2]. As the crystals
form, they combine with still other mineral salts like
calcium carbonate, and ions of Mg, K, fluoride, and
sulphate. This process of mineralization with
 Histology of bone tissue cont….
Four types of cells are present in bone tissue as:
1. Osteogenic Cells, from which almost all other
connective tissues are formed.
•They are the only bone cells that undergo division.
•They differentiate into osteoblasts.
2. Osteoblasts (blasts=buds) are bone-building cells.
They synthesize and secrete collagen fibers needed
to build extracellular matrix of bone tissue.
Osteoblasts are surrounded by and become trapped
into the matrix, and result in osteocytes.
 Histology of bone tissue cont….
3. Osteocytes are main cells in bone tissue that
maintain its daily metabolism. The do not undergo
cell division.
4. Osteoclasts (clast = break) are huge cells derived
from the fusion of as many as fifty monocytes. These
cells release powerful lysosomal enzymes and acids
that digest proteins and mineral components of the
underlying bone matrix. This breakdown of bone
matrix is known as resorption.
•Resorption is part of the normal development,
maintenance, and repair of bone.
 Compact Bones
• Compact bones are relatively stronger than spongy bones.
• Blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves penetrate
compact bone through transverse perforating or
Volkmann’s canal.
• A longitudinal canals run through the bone called central
or haversian canals.
• Around the haversian canals are concentric lamellae—
rings of calcified extracellular matrix like the rings in trunk
of a tree.
• Between the lamellae are small spaces called lacunae.
• Lacunae contain osteocytes.
• Radiating in all directions from the lacunae are tiny
canaliculi. All these components form haversian system.
 Spongy Bones
• Spongy bones are lighter and do not contain
haversian systems or osteons.
• They consist of irregular columns called
trabeculae (=little beams).
 spongy bone
Proximal compact bone
epiphysis
Endosteum

diaphysis
epiphyseal line

yellow marrow

Sharpey’s fibers
Distal
epiphysis periosteum
hyaline cartilage
 Division of Skeletal System

• Skeletal system of adult consists of 206 bones and

is divided into Axial and Appendicular skeleton.
• Axial skeleton consists of 80 bones while
Appendicular skeleton has 126 bones.
 Axial Skeleton (80) Appendicular Skeleton (126)
 Skull (22)  Pectoral girdles (4)
• Clavicle (2)
- Cranium (8)
• Scapula (2)
- Face (14)  Upper Limbs
 Hyoid (1) • Humerus (2)
 Auditory Ossicles (6) • Ulna (2)
- Malleus (2) • Radius (2)
• Carpals (16)
- Incus (2)
• Metacarpals (10)
- Stapes (2) • Phalanges (28)
 Vertebral Column (26)  Pelvic(hip) girdles
 Thorax • Hip, pelvic or OS Coxae
- Sternum (1) (2)
 Lower Limbs
- Ribs (24) Fibula (2)
• Femur (2) Tarsals (14)
• Patella (2) Metatarsals (10)
• Tibia (2) Phalanges (28)
 Axial Skeleton
Cranial Bones (8) Facial bones (14)
• Frontal bone (1) • Nasal bones (2)
• Temporal bones (2) • Inferior nasal conchae (2)
• Parietal bones (2) • Vomer (1)
• Occipital bone (1) • Lacrimal bones (2)
• Sphenoid Bone (1) • Zygomatic bones (2)
• Ethmoid bone (1) • Maxillae (2)
• Mandible (1)
• Palatine bones (2)
 Cranial Bones
1. Frontal Bone: Forms forehead, roofs of the orbits,
and most of the anterior part of the cranial floor.
•Soon after birth, the left and right sides of the
frontal bone are united by the metopic suture, which
usually disappears around the age of 8 years.
Foramen:
•Supraorbital—allows supraorbital nerve and artery.
Sinuses:
•Frontal sinuses (one of the paired paranasal sinuses)
opening into the nasal cavity.
 Cranial Bones cont…
2. Parietal Bones (pariet= wall):
•The two parietal bones form the greater portion of
the sides and roof of the cranial cavity.
•The internal surfaces of the parietal bones contain
many protrusions and depressions that
accommodate the blood vessels supplying the dura
mater.
 Cranial Bones cont…
3. Temporal Bones:
•They form the inferior lateral aspects of the cranium and
part of the cranial floor.
•The projection from its inferior anterior part is zygomatic
process, which articulates with the temporal process of the
zygomatic bone.
•These two processes form the zygomatic arch superiorly.
•A socket called the mandibular fossa is located on the
inferior posterior surface of the zygomatic process of each
temporal bone.
•Anterior to the mandibular fossa is an elevation called
articular tubercle. These two articulate with the mandible
to form temporomandibular joint
Temporal bone cont…
• Posterior and inferior to the ear canal is the
mastoid portion of the temporal bone which
directs sound waves to the ear.
• Posterior and inferior to the external ear canal is
mastoid process to which several neck muscles
are attached.
• The styloid process (styl=stake or pole) projects
inferiorly from the inferior surface of the temporal
bone which serves as a point of attachment for
muscles of tongue, pharynx, and hyoid bone.
 Temporal bone cont…
 Foramina in the temporal bones:
• Stylomastoid foramen, between the styloid and
the mastoid process, permits facial nerve (VII)
and stylomastoid artery.
• Carotid foramen, in the petrous portion (=rock),
allows carotid artery to pass.
• Jugular foramen, posterior to the carotid
foramen, permits jugular vein.
 Cranial Bones cont…
4. Occipital Bone (occipit = back of head):
•Forms the posterior and most of the base of the
cranium
•The foramen magnum (= large hole) is in the
inferior part of the bone.
•The medulla oblongata connects with spinal cord
via this foramen.
•Vertebral and spinal arteries also pass through it.
• The occipital condyles articulate with the atlas to
form the atlanto-occipital joint.
 Cranial Bones cont…
5. Sphenoid Bone (=wedge-shaped):
•A butterfly shaped bone lying at the middle part of the base of the
skull.
•It is the keystone as it articulates with the rest of all the cranial
bones and hold them.
•The sella turcica (sella=saddle; turcica= turkish) on which there is a
depression called hypophyseal fossa that contains pituitary gland.
•It forms a part of the nasal floor, side walls, and rear wall of the
orbit.
•The sphenoidal sinus opens into the nasal cavity.
•The optic foramen allows optic nerve (II) and opthalmic artery to
pass into the orbit:
 Cranial Bones cont…
6. Ethmoid Bone (like a sieve): Major superior supporting
structure of nasal cavity.
•Is sponge like, located on the midline in the anterior part of
the cranial floor medial to the orbits.
•It is anterior to sphenoid and posterior to the nasal bones.
It forms:
i. The anterior part of the cranial floor.
ii. The medial wall of the orbits.
iii. The superior portion of the nasal septum
iv. Most of the superior side walls of the nasal cavity.
 Ethmoid Bone cont…
• The cribriform plate (cribri=sieve ) forming the
roof of the nasal cavity contains olfactory
foramina which permit olfactory nerves to pass.
• Projecting superiorly from the cribriform plate is a
triangular process called crista galli (crista= crest;
galli= cock), which serves as a point of attachment
for the membranes that separate the two sides of
the brain.
• The two projections of ethmoid lateral to the
nasal septum are superior and middle nasal
conchae or turbinates which swirl the inhaled air.
 Fontanels
• Fontanels (=little fountains) At birth the
mesenchyme-filled spaces in the cranial bones are
called fontanels.
Four fontanels at the time of birth are:
1.Anterior Fontanel—the largest one that closes 18 to
24 months.
2.Posterior Fontanel—closes about 2 months.
3. Anterolateral Fontanels— paired, that close about
3 months after birth.
4. Posterolateral Fontanels—Paired, which close
about 12 months.
 Cranial Sutures
• Sutures (=seam) are immovable joints in adult that
holds most of the skull bones together.
Four prominent sutures in the cranium are:
1. Coronal Suture (=crown) unites frontal and both
parietal bones.
2. Sagittal suture (=arrow), unites the two parietal
bones.
3. Lambdoidal Suture, unites parietal bones and
occipital bone.
4. Squamous Sutures (squam = flat), unite parietal
and temporal bones
Posterior View
 Frontal Sinus

Ethmoid Sinus
Sphenoid Sinus

Maxillary Sinus

• Warm and moisten air

• Lighten the skull
• Enhance voice resonance
The Vertebral Column

Cervical Vertebrae (7)

Thoracic Vertebrae (12)
Lumbar Vertebrae (5)
Sacrum 1 (5 fused)
Coccyx 1 (4 fused)
Cervical Vertebrae
Sacrum & Coccyx
The Thoracic Cage

Sternum

True Ribs (7)

False Ribs (3)

Floating Ribs (2)

Bones of the Pectoral Girdle
 Humerus

Ulna

Radius
8 Carpals
5 Metacarpals
14 Phalanges
 Carpal Bones
The Carpus (wrist) consists of 8 carpal bones:
They are arranged in two transverse rows of four
bones each.
The Proximal row, from lateral to medial, are:
•Scaphoid (= boat like)
•Lunate (= moon-shaped)
•Triquetrum (three-cornered), and
•Pisiform (= pea-shaped)
 Carpal Bones cont…

The distal row, from lateral to medial, are:

•Trapezium (= four-sided with no two sides parallel)
•Trapezoid (= four-sided with two sides parallel)
•Capitate (= head-shaped), the largest one
•Hamate (= hooked)
 Mnemonic for Carpal Bones
Stop Letting Those People Touch The Cadaver’s Hand
Scaphoid Lunate Triquetrum Pisiform Trapezium Trapezoid Capitate
Hamate
Proximal Row Distal Row
Lateral Medial Lateral Medial
 How to remember Carpal Bones

Remember
 3tsp HCl (3tsp of HCl)
•3tsp= trapezium, trapezoid, triquetral,
scaphoid, pisiform
•HCl= Hamate, Capitate, lunate
Pelvis
 Pelvis (lateral view)
Ilium

Acetabulum

Obturator
foramen

Ischium Pubis
Ischium
Difference b/w Male and Female Pelvis
Male Pelvis Female Pelvis

• Heavy and thick • Light and thin

• Pelvic brim is smaller • Pelvic brim is larger and
and heart-shaped oval-shaped
• Acetabulum is large • Acetabulum is small
• Obturator foramen is • Obturator foramen is
round round
• Pubic arch ˂ 900 • Pubic arch ˃ 900
Male Pelvic Girdle Female Pelvic Girdle
 The Lower Limb
(Legs)

Femur
Patella

Tibia
Fibula

7 Tarsals
5 Metatarsals
14 Phalanges
 phelangies

metatarsals

tarsals

tarsals
metatarsals
phelangies
 Tarsal Bones
Tarsus (ankle) consists of 7 tarsal bones:
•Talus (= ankle bone)
•Calcaneus (= heel), the largest one
•Navicular (= like a little boat)
•Three Cuneiforms (= wedge-shaped), called
first, second, and third
•Cuboid (= cube-shaped)
Abnormal Curves of Vertebral Column

• Scoliosis (= crooked) is a lateral bending of the

vertebral column usually in the thoracic region.
• Kyphosis (= hump) is an increase in the thoracic
curve of the vertebral column in which shoulder
bends upward.
• Lordosis (= bent backward) may also called
hollow back, is an increase in the lumber curve.
• Spina bifida
• Is a congenital defect of the vertebral column in which
laminae of L5 and/or S1 fail to develop normally and unit
at the midline.
• The least serious form is called spina bifida occulta and
showing no symptoms but the presence of a small dimple.
• Other types of spina bifida involves the protrusion of
meninges and/or spinal cord and are collectively termed as
spina bifida cystica for the presence of cyst. If the sac
contains meninges and CSF, the condition is called spina
bifida with meningocele. If the sac contains meninges and
nerves, it is then called spina bifida with
meningomyelocele.
• An increased risk of Spina bifida is associated with the
deficiency of vitamin B called folic acid.