2 BASIC TYPES OF BONE

Compact Bone

 dense and looks smooth and homogeneous

 In compact bone, the mature bone cells, osteocytes are found within the bone matrix in tiny cavities called
lacunae . The lacunae are arranged in concentric circles called lamellae around central canals (also called
Haversian canals)
Osteon, or Haversian system

 Each complex consisting of a central canal and matrix rings

 structural and functional unit of compact bone

Spongy Bone

 has a spiky, open appearance like a sponge

 Under a microscope, you can see that spongy bone is composed of small needlelike pieces of bone called
trabeculae and lots of “open” space filled by marrow, blood vessels and nerves

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES ON THE BASIS OF SHAPE

1. Long bones

 are typically longer than they are wide.

 As a rule, they have a shaft with enlarged
ends.
 mostly compact bone but also contain
spongy bone at the ends. All the bones of
the limbs, except the patella
(kneecap) and the wrist and ankle
bones, are long bones.

2. Flat bones

 are thin, flattened, and usually curved.

 They have two thin layers of compact
bone sandwiching a layer of spongy
bone between them.
 Most bones of the skull, the ribs, and the
sternum (breastbone) are flat bones.

3. Short bones

 are generally cube-shaped and contain

mostly spongy bone with an outer
layer of compact bone.
 The bones of the wrist and ankle are short bones.
 Sesamoid bones, which form within tendons, are a special type of short bone.
 The best-known example is the patella.

4. Irregular bones

 Bones that do not fit one of the preceding categories.

  The vertebrae, which make up the spinal column, fall into this group.
 Like short bones, they are
mainly spongy bone with an
outer layer of compact bone.
Diaphysis or shaft
 Located in long bone
 makes up most of the bone’s
length
 composed of compact bone
 covered and protected by a
periosteum

Periosteum

 a fibrous connective tissue

membrane covering and
protecting Diaphysis

Perforating fibers or Sharpey’s fibers

 Hundreds of connective
tissue fibers
 secure the periosteum to the
underlying bone.

Epiphyses

 are the ends of long bones.

 Each epiphysis consists of a
thin layer of compact bone enclosing an area filled with spongy bone.
 Instead of a periosteum, articular cartilage covers its external surface. Because the articular cartilage is glassy
hyaline cartilage, it provides a smooth surface that decreases friction at the joint when covered by lubricating
fluid. Imagine how slick a marble floor (the articular cartilage) is when wet; this is analogous to the lubrication of
a joint.

Epiphyseal line

 Present in adult bones

 a thin line of bony tissue spanning the epiphysis that looks a bit different from the rest of the bone in that area
 remnant of the epiphyseal plate (a flat plate of hyaline cartilage) seen in a young, growing bone.

Epiphyseal plates

 cause the lengthwise growth of a long bone.

 By the end of puberty, when hormones inhibit long bone growth, epiphyseal plates have been completely
replaced by bone, leaving only the epiphyseal lines to mark their previous location

Endosteum

 Covering the inner bony surface of the shaft

 a delicate connective tissue

Medullary cavity

 In infants, the cavity of the shaft

  a storage area for red marrow, which produces blood cells.

Children’s bones contain red marrow until the age of 6 or 7, when it is gradually replaced by yellow marrow, which
stores adipose (fat) tissue.

In adult bones, red marrow is confined to cavities in the spongy bone of the axial skeleton, the hip bones, and the
epiphyses of long bones such as the humerus and femur.

Two categories of bone markings:

(a) projection or processes

 which grow out from the bone

surface

 All the terms beginning with T

are projections

(b) depressions or cavities

 which are indentations in the

bone.

 terms beginning with F (except

facet) are depressions.

Central canals run lengthwise

through the bony matrix, carrying
blood vessels and nerves to all
areas of the bone.

Canaliculi (Tiny canals)

 radiate outward from the

central canals to all lacunae.

 form a transportation system

that connects all the bone cells
to the nutrient supply and
waste removal services
through the hard bone matrix.

 Because of this elaborate

network of canals, bone cells
are well nourished in spite of
the hardness of the matrix, and
bone injuries heal quickly. The communication pathway from the outside of the bone to its interior (and the central
canals) is completed by perforating canals (also called Volkmann’s canals), which run in the compact bone at right
angles to the shaft (diaphysis) and central canals.

Bone Formation and Growth

The skeleton is formed from two of the strongest and most supportive tissues in the body—cartilage and bone.

In embryos, the skeleton is primarily made of hyaline cartilage, but in young children, most of the cartilage has been
replaced by bone.

Cartilage
 remains only in isolated areas such as the bridge of the nose, parts of the ribs, and the joints.

 Except for flat bones, which form on fibrous membranes, most bones develop using hyaline cartilage structures as
their “models.”

This process of bone formation, or ossification involves two major phases.

First, the hyaline cartilage model is

completely covered with bone
matrix (a bone “collar”) by bone-
building cells called osteoblasts. So,
as the embryo develops into a
fetus, for a short period it has
cartilage “bones” enclosed by actual
bone matrix.

Then, in the fetus, the enclosed

hyaline cartilage model is replaced
by bone, and the center is digested
away, opening up a medullary
cavity within the newly formed
bone.

By birth or shortly after, most

hyaline cartilage models have been
converted to bone except for two
regions—the articular cartilages
(that cover the bone ends) and the epiphyseal plates.

In order for bones to increase in length as the infant grows into a child, new cartilage is formed continuously on the
external face (joint side) of the articular cartilage and on the epiphyseal plate surface that faces the bone end (is farther
away from the medullary cavity). At the same time, the old cartilage abutting the internal face of the articular cartilage
and the medullary cavity is broken down and replaced by bony matrix
Axial Skeleton
As noted earlier, the skeleton is divided into two parts, the axial and appendicular skeletons.

The axial skeleton forms the

longitudinal axis of the Body.

It can be divided into three parts—

 the skull

 the vertebral column

 thoracic cage.

SKULL
The skull is formed by two sets of
bones.

The cranium encloses and protects

the fragile brain tissue.

The facial bones form a cradle for the

eyes that is open to the anterior and
allow the facial muscles to show our
feelings through smiles or frowns.
 All but one of the bones of
the skull are joined together
by sutures which are
interlocking, immovable
joints. Only the mandible
(jawbone) is attached to the
rest of the skull by a freely
movable joint.

CRANIUM
The boxlike cranium is
composed of eight large flat
bones.

Except for two sets of

paired bones (the parietal
and temporal), they are all
single bones.

Frontal Bone

forms the forehead, the bony projections under the eyebrows, and the superior part of each eye’s orbit

Parietal Bones

The paired parietal bones form most of the superior and lateral walls of the cranium. The sagittal suture is formed at the
midline where the two parietal bones meet, and the coronal suture is formed where the paired parietal bones meet the
frontal bone.

Temporal Bones

lie inferior to the parietal bones and join them at the squamous sutures. Several important bone markings appear on the
temporal bones

 The external acoustic meatus is a canal that leads to the eardrum and the middle ear. It is the route by which sound
enters the ear.

 The styloid process, a sharp, needlelike projection, is just inferior to the external auditory meatus. Many neck
muscles use the styloid process as an attachment point.

 The zygomatic process is a thin bridge of bone that joins with the cheekbone (zygomatic bone) anteriorly.

 The mastoid process, which is full of air cavities (the mastoid sinuses), is a rough projection posterior and inferior to
the external acoustic meatus. It provides an attachment site for some muscles of the neck.

 The jugular foramen, at the junction of the occipital and temporal bones, allows passage of the jugular vein, the
largest vein of the head, which drains blood from the brain. Just anterior to it in the cranial cavity is the internal
acoustic meatus, which transmits cranial nerves VII and VIII (the facial and vestibulocochlear nerves). Anterior to
the jugular foramen on the skull’s inferior aspect is the carotid canathrough which the internal carotid artery runs,
supplying blood to most of the brain.

Occipital Bone

 most posterior bone of the cranium

 It forms the base and back wall of the skull

 joins the parietal bones anteriorly at the lambdoid Suture

 In the base of the occipital bone is a large opening, the foramen magnum (literally, “large hole”).

Foramen magnum

 surrounds the lower part of the brain and allows the spinal cord to connect with the brain. Lateral to the
foramen

Rockerlike occipital condyles

 Lateral to the foramen magnum on each side, which rest on the first vertebra of the spinal column.

Sphenoid Bone

The butterfly-shaped sphenoid bone spans the width of the skull and forms part of the floor of the cranial cavity.

Sella turcica (Turk’s saddle)

 In the midline of the sphenoid

 a small depression which forms a snug

enclosure for the pituitary gland.

Foramen ovale

 a large oval opening in line with the

posterior end of the sella turcica

 allows fibers of cranial nerve V (the

trigeminal nerve) to pass to the
chewing muscles of the lower jaw
(mandible).

Parts of the sphenoid bone, seen exteriorly

forming part of the eye orbits, have two
important opening;

Optic canal - which allows the optic nerve to

pass to the eye
 Superior orbital fissure -(slitlike) through
which the cranial nerves controlling eye
movements (III, IV, and VI) pass. The central
part of the sphenoid bone is riddled with air
cavities, the sphenoidal sinuses

Ethmoid Bone

 very irregularly shaped and lies anterior

to the Sphenoid.

 It forms the roof of the nasal cavity and

part of the medial walls of the orbits.

 Extensions of the ethmoid bone, the

superior nasal conchae and middle
nasal conchae, form part of the lateral
walls of the nasal cavity

Crista galli

 Projecting from the superior surface of

Ethmoid Bone

 literally “cock’s comb”

 The outermost covering of the brain

attaches to this projection

Cribriform plates

 Many holes in each side of crista galli

 allow nerve fibers carrying impulses from the olfactory

(smell) receptors of the nose to reach the brain.

Facial Bones
Fourteen bones make up the face. Twelve are paired; only the
mandible and vomer are single.

Maxillae

 The two maxillae, or maxillary bones, fuse to form the

upper jaw.

 All facial bones except the mandible join the maxillae; thus
they are the main, or “keystone,” bones of the Face

 The maxillae carry the upper teeth in the alveolar process.

Palatine processes

 Extensions of the maxillae

 form the anterior part of the hard palate of the mouth

 contain sinuses, which drain into the nasal passages

These paranasal sinuses, whose naming reveals their position surrounding the nasal cavity, lighten the skull bones and
amplify the sounds we make as we speak.

Palatine Bones

 The paired palatine bones lie posterior to the palatine processes of the maxillae.

 They form the posterior part of the hard palate.

 Failure of these or the palatine processes to fuse medially results in cleft palate.

Zygomatic Bones

 commonly referred to as the cheekbones.

 They also form a good-sized portion of the lateral walls of the orbits.

Lacrimal Bones

 are fingernail-sized bones forming part of the medial wall of each orbit.

 Each lacrimal bone has a groove that serves as a passageway for tears (lacrima = tear).

Nasal Bones

 The small rectangular bones forming the bridge of the nose are the nasal bones. (The lower part of the skeleton of
the nose is made up of hyaline cartilage.)

Vomer Bone

 The single bone in the median line of the nasal cavity is the vomer. (Vomer means “plow,” which refers to the
bone’s shape.)

 forms the inferior part of the bony nasal septum, which separates the two nostrils.

Inferior Nasal Conchae

 are thin, curved bones projecting medially from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity.

 (As mentioned earlier, the superior and middle conchae are similar but are parts of the ethmoid bone.)

Mandible

 or lower jaw, is the largest and strongest bone of the face.

 It joins the temporal bones on each side of the face, forming the only freely movable joints in the skull.

 You can find these joints on yourself by placing your fingers just anterior to your ears and opening and closing your
mouth.

 The horizontal part of the mandible (the body) forms the chin.

 Two upright bars of bone (the rami) extend from the body to connect the mandible with the temporal bone.
 The lower teeth lie in alveoli (sockets) in the alveolar process at the superior edge of the mandibular body.

The Hyoid Bone

 Though not really part of the skulle

 closely related to the mandible and temporal bones.

 unique in that it is the only bone of the body that does

not articulate (form a joint) with any other bone.

 Instead, it is suspended in the midneck region about 2

cm (1 inch) above the larynx (voicebox), where it is
anchored by ligaments to the styloid processes of the
temporal bones. Horseshoe-shaped, with a body and
two pairs of horns

 serves as a movable base for the tongue and as an

 attachment point for neck muscles that raise and

 lower the larynx when we swallow and speak.

Vertebral Column (Spine)

 extends from the skull, which it supports, to the pelvis, where it transmits the weight of the body to the lower
limbs. Some people think of the vertebral column as a rigid supporting rod, but that picture is inaccurate.

 Instead, the spine is formed from 26 irregular bones connected and reinforced by ligaments in such a way that a
flexible, curved structure results

 Running through the central cavity of the vertebral column is the delicate spinal cord, which the vertebral column
surrounds and protects.

Before birth, the spine consists of 33 separate bones called vertebrae, but 9 of these eventually fuse to form the two
composite bones, the sacrum and the coccyx, that construct the inferior portion of the vertebral column. Of the 24
single bone;

7 vertebrae of the neck are cervical vertebrae

12 are the thoracic vertebrae

5 supporting the lower back are lumbar vertebrae.

The individual vertebrae are separated by pads of flexible fibrocartilage—intervertebral discs— that cushion the
vertebrae and absorb shock while allowing the spine flexibility.

In a young person, the discs have a high water content (about 90 percent) and are spongy and compressible
 But as a person ages, the water content of the discs decreases (as it does in
other tissues throughout the body), and the discs become harder and less
compressible.

discs and the S-shaped structure of the vertebral column

work together to prevent shock to the head when we walk or run.

They also make the body trunk flexible.

The spinal curvatures in the thoracic and sacral regions are referred to as
prImary curvatures because they are present when we are born.

Together the two primary curvatures produce the C-shaped spine of the
newborn baby

The curvatures in the cervical and lumbar regions are referred to as

secondary curvatures because they develop some time after birth.

In adults, the secondary curvatures allow us to center our body weight on our
lower limbs with minimum effort.

cervical curvature - appears when a baby begins to raise its head

lumbar curvature - develops when the baby begins to walk.

There are several types of abnormal spinal curvatures that can be identified
by simple observation.

Three of these are scoliosis, kyphosis, and

lordosis.

 These spinal abnormalities may be

congenital (present at birth) or may result
from disease, poor posture, unequal
muscle pull on the spine, or injury.

 Generally, unless there is a congenital

problem, young healthy people have no
skeletal problems, assuming that their
diet is nutritious and they stay reasonably
active.

 The usual treatments for these abnormal curvatures are braces, casts, or surgery
 All vertebrae have a similar structural pattern. The common
features of vertebrae include the following:

• Body, or centrum: disclike, weight-bearing part of the vertebra

facing anteriorly in the vertebral column.

• Vertebral arch: arch formed from the joining of all posterior

extensions, the laminae and pedicles, from the vertebral body.

• Vertebral foramen: canal through which the spinal cord

passes.

• Transverse processes: two lateral projections from the

vertebral arch.

• Spinous process: single projection arising from the posterior

aspect of the vertebral arch (actually the fused laminae).

• Superior articular process and inferior articular process:

paired projections lateral to the vertebral foramen, allowing a
vertebra to form joints with adjacent vertebrae.

Vertebrae in the
different regions of
the spine have very
specific structural
characteristics, which
we describe next.

Cervical Vertebrae

 The seven
cervical
vertebrae
(identified as C1
to C7) form the
neck region of
the spine.

 The first two

vertebrae (atlas
 and axis) are different because they perform functions not shared by the other cervical vertebrae, the atlas (C1) has
no body.

The superior surfaces of its transverse processes contain large

depressions that receive the occipital condyles of the skull. This joint
allows you to nod “yes.”

The axis (C2) acts as a pivot for the rotation of the atlas (and skull)
above. It has a large upright process, the dens, which acts as the pivot
point.

The joint between C1 and C2 allows you to rotate your head from
side to side to indicate “no.”

“typical” cervical vertebrae

 are C3 through C7 . They are the smallest, lightest vertebrae, and

most often their spinous processes are short and divided into
two branches.

The transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae contain foramina

(openings) through which the vertebral arteries pass on their way to
the brain above.

Any time you see these foramina in a vertebra, you should know
immediately that it is a cervical vertebra.

Thoracic Vertebrae

 The 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1 to T12) are all typical.

 They are larger than the cervical vertebrae and are distinguished by the fact that they are the only vertebrae to
articulate with the ribs.

 The body is somewhat heart-shaped and has two costal facets (articulating surfaces) on each side, which receive
the heads of the ribs

 The transverse processes of each thoracic vertebra articulate with the knoblike tubercles of the ribs.

 The spinous process is long and hooks sharply downward, causing the vertebra to look like a giraffe’s head viewed
from the side.

Lumbar Vertebrae

 The five lumbar vertebrae (L1 to L5) have massive, blocklike bodies that are somewhat kidney bean–shaped.

 Their short, hatchet-shaped spinous processes (dotted line in Figure 5.18d) make them look like a moose head from
the lateral aspect.

 Most of the stress on the vertebral column occurs in the lumbar region, these are the sturdiest of the vertebrae.

Sacrum
 The sacrum is formed by the fusion of five vertebrae (Figure 5.19). Superiorly it articulates with L5, and inferiorly it
connects with the coccyx.

 Each winglike ala articulates laterally with the hip bone, forming a sacroiliac joint.

 The sacrum forms the posterior wall of the pelvis.

 Its posterior midline surface is roughened by the median sacral crest, the fused spinous processes of the sacral
vertebrae.

 This is flanked laterally by the posterior sacral foramina.

 The vertebral canal continues inside the sacrum as the sacral canal and terminates in a large inferior opening called
the sacral hiatus.

Coccyx

 The coccyx is formed from the fusion of three to five tiny, irregularly shaped vertebrae .

 It is the human “tailbone,” a remnant of the tail that other vertebrate animals have.

Thoracic Cage
Make up the bony thorax

 Sternum

 Ribs

 Thoracic
vertebrae

The bony thorax is

routinely called the
thoracic cage
because it forms a
protective cage of
slender bones and
cartilages around the
organs of the
thoracic cavity
(heart, lungs, and
major blood vessels).
Sternum

The sternum (breastbone) is a typical flat bone and the result of the fusion of three bones—the manubrium, body, and
xiphoid process.

It is attached directly to the first seven pairs of ribs via costal cartilages.

The sternum has three important bony landmarks:

 Jugular notch

 Sternal angle

 Xiphisternal joint

Jugular notch

 (concave upper border of the manubrium) can be palpated easily; generally it is at the level of the third thoracic
vertebra.

Sternal angle

 results where the manubrium and body meet at a slight angle to each other, so that a transverse ridge is formed at
the level of the second ribs.

 It provides a handy reference point for counting ribs to locate the second intercostal space for listening to certain
heart valves.

 To clarify the location of these structures, you can palpate your own sternal angle and jugular notch.

Xiphisternal joint

 the point where the sternal body and xiphoid process fuse, lies at the level of the ninth thoracic vertebra.

Because the sternum is so close to the body

surface, it is easy to obtain samples from it of

blood-forming (hematopoietic) tissue for the diag

nosis of suspected blood diseases. A needle is

inserted into the marrow of the sternum, and the

sample is withdrawn; this procedure is called a

sternal puncture. Because the heart lies immedi

ately posterior to the sternum, the physician must