Chapter Three: Bipolar Junction

Transistors

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23, 1 / 84

Outlines

1 Introductio
n
2 Bipolar Junction Transistors
(BJTs)
3 Principles of
Operation
4 Modes of BJT Configurations (Connections) and BJT

Characteristic Curves

5 Bipolar Junction Transistors Biasing Circuit

Types The DC Load Line

6 Small Signal BJT Amplifiers and Parametric

Representations Analysis of Small Signal BJT
Amplifier Circuits

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23, 2 / 84

Introduction

The word transistor is the combination of two words.

TRANsfer and reSISTOR (transfer and resistor) which means;
transfer of electrical power from a low resistive circuit
to a high resistive circuit.
Transistors are electronic devices constructed of doped
semiconductor and whose voltage-current relationship is
controlled by a third voltage or current;
Three-layered,
Three- terminal
and Two-junction
Demonstrated by a team of scientists at Bell laboratories in
1947 and their introduction brought an end to the age of
vacuum tube devices.

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23, 3 / 84

Cont. . . .

Due to some of their merits over vacuum tubes such as:

Smaller size, light weight
No heating elements
required Low power
consumption
Low operating voltages
Applications
Signal amplifiers,
Electronic
switches,
Oscillators,
Design of digital
logics, Memory
circuits etc.
Classification
1 Unipolar
2 Transistors
Depending on their majority and minority charge carriers,
Bipolar are;
transistors
By: Dr. G.SUBBATransistors
RAO Electronic April 23, 4 / 84
Cont. . . .
Unipolar Transistors :
Only one carrier type is involved in charge flow
due to drift .
Charge carrier is either electrons or holes as
majority charge carriers only.
Field Effect Transistors (FETs).
Bipolar transistors :
Their operation involves both electrons and
holes. Charge flow is due to bidirectional
diffusion of charge carriers across a junction
between two regions of different charge
concentrations.
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs).
Most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of
charges injected from a high-concentration emitter
into the base where they are minority carriers that
diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are
devices
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO currentElectronic
controlled while FETs
April 23, are said 5 / 84
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Consists of three differently doped

semiconductor regions;
The emitter region,
Low resistive material, which is heavily
doped and supplies majority charge
carriers.
The base region
Physically located between the emitter
and the collector
Made from lightly doped, high resistive
material. It allows most of the charge
carriers to pass through it from the
emitter to the collector (current
controlling)
The collector region
Doped slightly lower than the emitter
region It collects the most majority
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO charge carriers
Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .

Classification
NPN transistor : emitter region is n-type, base region is p-
type and collector region is n-type

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Cont. . . .

PNP transistor : emitter region p-type, base region is n-

type and collector region is p-type

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Cont. . . .

Each semiconductor region is connected to a terminal,

appropriately labeled: emitter (E), base (B) and collector
(C).
The arrow head on the emitter always indicates to the N-
type region and to the conventional current flow direction
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,
Principles of Operation

For their appropriate (correct) operation both NPN

and PNP transistors must be properly biased

A dc voltage and current that is applied to an electronics

device to set up the desired dc operating points

The operating point of a device, or bias point or quiescent

point, or Q-point, is the point on the output characteristics
that shows the DC collector–emitter voltage (Vce ) and the
collector current (Ic ) with no ac input signal applied.
The term is normally used in connection with
devices such as transistors under their dc
conditions.
Four different junction-biasing combinations to have
four distinct regions of operation.
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .

Forward-Active (or simply, Active) :base–emitter junction is

forward biased and the base–collector junction
is reverse biased
The collector–emitter current is approximately proportional
to the base current, but many times larger, for
small base current variations
Saturation :both junctions forward-biased
a logical ”on”, or a closed
switch Cut-off : both junctions reverse
biased
a logical ”off”, or
an open switch.
Reverse-Active :
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO The emitter and
Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .

In most times for both PNP and NPN transistors,

The EB junction is forward-biased while the CB junction is

reverse-biased to use the device as an amplifier, oscillator,
mixer, detector, and so on.

The working principle of PNP transistor is similar to NPN,

except the fact that roles of free electrons and holes are
interchanged as well as current directions and biasing
polarities are reversed Electronic
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO April 23,
Cont. . . .
The majority charge carriers (electrons) are emitted from
the emitter (IE ) into the base because the negative
potential of the battery of VBE repels the electrons from
the N-type material (emitter)
The most of emitted electrons (say, about 99%)
crossing the CB junction as collector current (IC ).
Some of the charge carriers from the emitter, which do not
reach the collector (say, about 1%), entering the base
(recombination) and flow through the base back to the
emitter.

IE = IC + I B (1)

Since IB is very much small

IC = αIE (2)
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .

A very small minority charge carrier, collector-base-

leakage-current (ICBO ), flows through the CB junction.
ICBO means, current flowing form collector to the base
when the emitter junction is open, This is due to
thermally generated electron-hole pairs even during
normal operation.
IC = ICBO + αIE (3
)
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,
Modes of BJT Configurations (Connections)
and BJT Characteristic Curves
A transistor is a three terminal device
For applications such as amplifier circuit, four terminals
are required; two for the input section and two for the
output section
One of the three terminals of the transistor should be
made common for both the input and for the output
terminals in such a case.
Depending on which of the three terminals is used as
common terminal, there are three different
configurations:
Common Base (CB): The base is common for both the input
and the output
Common Emitter (CE): The emitter is common for both the
input and the output and
Common Collector (CC): The collector is common for both
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .

Common-Base (CB) - The base is common for the input

and the output

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Cont. . . .

The important parameters of transistor configurations is

the current amplification factor (current gain)
DC current gain (αdc )
IC
αdc = (4)
IE
AC current gain
(αdc ) ∆I C
αac = , with V
CB constant
(5) ∆I E
The ac alpha (αac ) is formally called the common-
base (short-circuit) amplification factor
αac and αdc are approximately equal and their values lie
between 0.95 and 0.998

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Cont. . . .

To study the behavior of a particular transistor, it is

recommended that the relationship between its
Input current and its input voltage, and its Output current
and its output voltage should be graphed and analyzed
by a characteristic curve of the device
Characteristic curves are used to determine the important
parameters of a transistor graphically such as:
Current gain
Input and output
impedances Voltage gain

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Cont. . . .

Input (VEB Vs IB , for various values of output voltage VCB as a

constant parameter) and output (VCE Vs IC , for various values
of input current IE as a parameter)

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Cont. . . .
Important
Parameters:
Input Impedance(Zi ∆ V
BE
): Zi = , with CB constant (6)
∆I E V
Output Impedance
(Z0):
∆ VCB
Z0 = , with E constant (7)
∆I C I
Current Gain
(AI ):
∆ IC
AI = , with CB constant (8)
V ∆I E
Voltage Gain
(AV ): ∆V B E
AV = , with E constant (9)
I ∆V C B
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .

Common-Emitter (CE)-The emitter is common for the input

and the output

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Cont. . . .

DC current gain
IC
(βdc ) βdc = (10
IB
)
AC current gaiin
(βac ) ∆I C
βac = , with V (11
CE ∆I B
constant )
The formal name for βac is common-emitter forward-
current amplification factor
βac = βdc = β or hFE = hfe

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Cont. . . .

Input (VBE Vs IB for various values of output voltage VCE as a

parameter) and output (VCE Vs IC for various values of input
current IB as a parameter)

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Cont. . . .
Important
Parameters:
Input Impedance(Zi ∆ V
BE
): Zi = , with CE constant (12
∆I B V )
Output Impedance
(Z0):
∆ VCE
Z0 = , with B constant (13
∆I C I )
Current Gain
(AI ):
∆ IC
AI = , with CE constant (14
V ∆I B )
Voltage Gain
(AV ): ∆VCE
AV = , with B constant (15
I ∆V B E )
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .

Common - Collector (CC) - The collector is common for

the input and the output

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Cont. . . .
DC current gain (βdc
′) IE IC + B
βdc ′ = =β+ (16
I I IB
= B 1 )
AC current gaiin
(βac ) ∆ IE
βac ′ = , with constant
VEC ∆I B (17)
αdc is always less than unity (one), and it is between 0.95
− 0.998.
βdc and βd′ c are always much greater than unity.
They are between βdc = 19 − 500 & βd′ c = 20 − 500
and more. In data sheets βac is given as hfe
β
The relationship betweenααac and βdc : -
β+
= 1
β (18
1α
−
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO
=
Electronic April 23,
)
Cont. . . .

Input (VCB Vs IB with constant VEC ) and output (VEC Vs IE

with constant base current IB )

Since IC is approximately equal to IE , the common collector

output characteristic curve is the same as that of the
common emitter circuit.
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .
Important
Parameters:
Input Impedance(Zi ∆ V
BC
): Zi = , with EC constant (19
∆I B V )
Output Impedance
(Z0):
∆ VCE
Z0 = , with B constant (20
∆I E I )
Current Gain
(AI ):
∆ IE
βac′ = = βac + 1, with CE constant (21
∆I B V )
Voltage Gain
(AV ): ∆VCE
AV = , with B constant (22
I ∆V B E )
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .

NOTE:
βac ′ = βdc ′ = β′
VBE , VCB and VCE are negative for PNP
transistors

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Bipolar Junction Transistors Biasing Circuit Types
For a Bipolar Junction Transistor to operate normally,
A dc voltage base – to – emitter voltage (VBE ), collector – to
– base voltage (VBC ) and collector –to - emitter voltage (VCE )
be maintained between its base, emitter and collector.
The main purpose of the dc biasing circuit is to set up the
initial dc values of:
Base current (IB )
Collector current
(IC )
Collector – Emitter voltage (VCE ) from a single power source
(supply) called VCC .
Common five biasing circuits used in small signal bipolar
1 Fixed Bias Circuit
transistor amplifiers are
2 Collector-to-Base Bias
3 Circuit Fixed Bias with
4 Emitter resistor Voltage
5 Divider Bias

Emitter
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Bias Electronic April 23,
Fixed Bias (Base Bias)

IB , constant (fixed) regardless of variations in IC by the

collector circuit bias (VCC ) and the base resistor (RB )
Circuit Analysis
Input Section
VCC − VBE
IB =
(23) RB

VCC
VCC BE≫V B
,I=
Output
R Section B

IC = βIB

(24)

V =V
By: Dr. G.SUBBA
CE RAO
CC − IC RC Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .

forVCE = 0V and VBE

neglected VCC
IB =
βRC

an VCC
d IB =
βRC
Solving for
RB RB = βRC

(26)
Merits:
It is simple to shift the operating point anywhere in the
active region by merely changing the base resistor (RB )
Simple
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAOcircuit; very small number of components
Electronic are
April 23,
Cont. . . .

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Cont. . . .

Demerits:
The IC does not remain constant with variation in
temperature or power supply voltage. Therefore the
operating point is unstable. When the transistor is replaced
with another one, considerable change in the value of β can
be expected. Due to this change the operating point will
shift.
Application:
Rarely used in linear circuits (i.e., those circuits which
use the transistor as a current source).
Used in circuits where transistor is used as a switch.
Crude automatic gain control in the transistor by feeding the
base resistor from a DC signal derived from the AC output
of a later stage.

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Collector-to-Base Bias

Employs negative feedback to prevent thermal runaway

and stabilize the operating point.
The base resistor RB is connected to the collector
instead of connecting it to the DC source VCC .
Any thermal runaway will induce a voltage drop across
RC resistor that will throttle (chock) the transistor’s base
current.
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .

Any change in VCE alters the level of IB .

The change in IB alters IC and tends this to return VCE
towards its original value.
Circuit Analysis
Input Section VCC − VBE
B (27
I = RB + (β + )
VCC − VBE 1)Rc
IB ≫ βIB , IB =
RB +
Output βRC
Section IC = βIB (28
)
VCE = VCC − IC RC = VCC − βIB RC
(29
If VBE is held constant and temperature increases, then the
)
collector current IC increases.
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23, 38 /
Cont. . . .

A larger IC causes the voltage drop across resistor RC to

increase, which in turn reduces the voltage across the base
resistor RB , (VRB ).
A lower base-resistor voltage drop reduces the base current
IB , which results in less collector current IC .
The operating point is kept
stable. Merits:
Circuit stabilizes the operating point against variations in
temperature and β (ie. replacement of transistor)
Demerits:
To keep Ic independent β(V
of β, the following
CC − V BE )
condition
VCC − BE must be
met: IC = βIB ≈ (30
RB + (β + V Rc
= )
1)Rc
βRC ≫ RB

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Cont. . . .

As β-value is fixed (and generally unknown) for a given

transistor, this relation can be satisfied either by keeping RC
fairly large or making RB very low.
If RC is large, a high VCC is necessary, which increases cost as
well as precautions necessary while handling.
If RB is low, the reverse bias of the collector–base region is
small, which limits the range of collector voltage swing that
leaves the transistor in active mode.
The resistor RB causes an AC feedback, reducing the
voltage gain of the amplifier.
This undesirable effect is a trade-off for greater Q-point
stability
Application:
The feedback also decreases the input impedance of the
amplifier as seen from the base, which can be
advantageous.
Due to the gain reduction from feedback, this biasing form is
used RAO
By: Dr. G.SUBBA only when the trade-off
Electronic for stability is warranted.
April 23,
Fixed Bias with Emitter Resistor

Fixed Bias with RE , introduces negative feedback that

stabilizes the Q-point.
The IC is brought from the output circuit back to the input,
helps to stable the circuit operation.
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .

Circuit
Analysis
VCC − VBE
Input B (31
Section I = RB + (β + )
VCC − VBE 1)Re
IB ≫ βIB , IB =
RB +
Output SectionβRC
VCE = VCC − IC (RC + Re )

(32)

If VBE is held constant and temperature increases, then the

collector current IC increases.
If VBE is held constant and temperature increases, emitter
current increases.
However, a larger IE increases the emitter voltage VE = IE Re
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23, 43 /
Cont. . . .

A lower base-resistor voltage drop reduces the base

current, which results in less IC = βIB .
Increase in emitter current with temperature is
opposed, and operating point is kept stable
Merits:
The circuit has the tendency to stabilize operating
point against changes in temperature and β-value.
Demerits:
To keep Ic independent of β, the following condition
must be met:
β(VCC − V BE ) VCC − BE
IC = βIB ≈ (33
RB + (β + V Re
= )
1)Re
(β + 1)Re ≫
RB
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .

As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation can

be satisfied either by keeping Re very large or making Rb
very low.
If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary. This increases
cost as well as precautions (safety measures) necessary
while handling.
If RB is low, a separate low voltage supply should be used in
the base circuit. Using two supplies of different voltages is
impractical.
In addition to the above, RE causes ac feedback which
reduces the voltage gain of the amplifier
Application:
The feedback also increases the input impedance of the
amplifier when seen from the base, which can be
advantageous.
Due to the above disadvantages, this type of biasing circuit is
By: Dr. G.SUBBAused
RAO only with careful consideration of the trade-offs
Electronic April 23,
Example

1. For the emitter bias network of Fig.below,

determine.

a. IB and IC
b. VCE
c, VC , VE and
VB
d. VBC

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Collector-Stabilized Biasing
a. Voltage Divider Bias
Approximate Analysis

Circuit Analysis
Input
Section
VCC
− VBE
1 RR12
IB = (34
+
R1 ||R2 + (β + 1)Re
)

IB ≫ βI B , V
= RCC
− VBE
B +
IOutput
B
βR
C
Section
IE = VB − VBE = I (35
RE
CQ )
VCEQ = VCC − ICQ (RC + Re ) (36
)
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .

Merits:
Like above circuits, only one dc supply is
necessary. Operating point is almost
independent of β variation Operating point
stabilized against shift in temperature.
Demerits:
To keep Ic independent of β, the following
condition must be met: VCC
− VBE
1 RR1
IC = βIB = β + 2
(37
R1 ||R2 + (β +
1)Re )
(β + 1)Re ≫ R1 ||R2
As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation can
be satisfied either by keeping Re very large or making R1||R2
very low.
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .

If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary. This increases

cost as well as precautions (safety measures) necessary
while handling.
If R1||R2 is low,
Either R1 is low, or R2 is low, or both are low.
A low R1 raises VB closer to VC , reducing the available
swing in collector voltage, and limiting how large RC can
be made without driving the transistor out of active
mode.
A low R2 lowers Vbe, reducing the allowed collector
current.
Lowering both resistor values draws more current from the
power supply and lowers the input resistance of the amplifier
as seen from the base.
AC as well as DC feedback is caused by RE , which
reduces the AC voltage gain of the amplifier.
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .

Exact Analysis
Obtained by applying Thevenin’s theorem to the circuit.
Determination of Thevenin voltage (VTh ): To find the
Thevenin voltage, remove the transistor base circuit to
the voltage divider
networ
VCC R2
k VTH = V = (38
R2 R1 + R2 )
Determination of the Thevenin resistance
(RTh ): R 1R 2
RTH = (39
R1 + R2 )

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Cont. . . .
The Thevenin equivalent of the
circuit

Input Section
Input
Section VTH (40
B
I =
RT H + βRE )
Output
βVTH
Section (41
B
IC = βI = RT H + )
VCE = VCC − βR
IC (R
E C + (42
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO )
REElectronic April 23,
)
Cont. . . .
b. Voltage Divider with AC emitter bypass capacitor
Placing a bypass capacitor (CE ) in parallel with RE , to avoid
reduced t gain by RE

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Emitter Bias

When a split supply (dual power supply) is available, this

biasing circuit is the most effective, and provides zero
bias voltage at the emitter or collector for load.
The positive supply VCC is used to reverse-bias the
collector junction.
Circuit Analysis
Since, VB − VE = VBE .
If RB is small enough, base
voltage V(VEEB )
−will
VBE be
IE =
approximately zero.= CQ
I
(43) RE

The operating point is

independent RB
of β if RE
β
≪
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .

Merit:
Good stability of operating point similar to voltage
divider bias.
Demerit:
This type can only be used when a split (dual) power
supply is available.
It is seldom practical.

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

The DC Load Line

A graph on the output characteristic curve of a transistor to

represent output current (IO = IC ) and voltage across the
transistor
(VO = VCE ) for a given amplifier dc circuit
This IC and VCE corresponding point is called an operating
point or a quiescent point or Q-point of the transistor.
The values of IC and VCE at this point are known as operating
point values (ICQ and VCEQ ).
Quiescent means the dc biasing condition of the given
transistor circuit when there is no ac input signal is
applied.

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Cont. . . .

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Small Signal BJT Amplifiers and
Parametric Representations

Amplifier is a circuit using an active device such a

transistor or an integrated circuit (IC) to increase the
intensity (strength) of current, voltage or power of a signal
without changing the shape of the waveform and the
frequency.

Amplification means the process of increasing the intensity

(amplitude) of a signal

Example, audio output from a microphone may be as little

as one millivolt, whereas the loudspeaker needs at least a
few volts of audio signal.

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Cont. . . .

To model transistors amplifier circuit blocks, Two port

networks (system) are used

Depending on the input and output

signal levels
Small signal and
Large signal Amplifiers

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Parameters of an Amplifier

∆ Vi
Input Impedance(Zi ): or ac resistance | held constant
∆I i Vo
Zi =
Output Impedance (Zo ): or ac output
resistance ∆ Vo
Z0 or ro =ro |I held constant
∆I o i
Amplification factor (Gain): determines how much the
input signal is increased.
Vo
Voltage gain (Av): VA =o =
∆ ViV ∆ V i Io held constant
| Io o
Current gain (A
I ): IA = = V held constant
∆I I ∆ Ii o
| i
Power gain (Ap): Ap = AV × AI
A negative sign of a linear gain indicates a 180◦ phase
shift between the input and the output signals.
Transistors and ICs are used as a main amplifier part

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Cont. . . .
Resistors, inductors and capacitors are required to form a
complete amplifier circuit
Example: A common-emitter amplifier

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Cont. . . .

(VS + RS ): - a signal source as the main input including

its internal resistance.
C1: - The input coupling capacitor, used to couple or pass
the incoming input signal and block a dc voltage from
being applied to succeeding (next) stage.
R1&R2: - voltage divider network, to develop bias voltage to
the base. Transistor: - an active device uses as a main
amplifier component.
RC : - a collector resistor, which determines the voltage to
be applied to the collector by dropping some of the VCC
(main supply dc voltage).
RE : - an emitter resistor, which develops emitter bias
voltage and also used as a temperature stabilizer (See
Fig.3.16.).
By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,
Cont. . . .

C2: - an output coupling capacitor that used to pass

(transfer) the amplified output signal to the load
impedance or to the next stage.
It also blocks a dc voltage not to be coupled.
RL: - a load resistor, which develops the output ac voltage
across it (if it is connected).
A common-emitter amplifier is the most commonly used
type for two reasons:
It has high voltage and power (current) gain.
Its input and output impedances (ac resistances) are
stable or moderate.

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,

Analysis of Small Signal BJT Amplifier Circuits

The simplest way to analyze the circuit is to split it into two

parts as;
DC
Analysis
AC
Analysis
The DC1 Setting all ac sources to zero and replacing them by an

Analysis open-circuit equivalent

Is to Replacing
obtain or all capacitors by an open-circuit equivalent
2
drive a dc equivalent circuit of the given
3 Removing all elements bypassed by the open-circuit
amplifier circuit Obtained by;
equivalents introduced by steps 1 and 2
4 Redrawing the network in a more convenient and
5 logical form Calculate all the dc operating values
Example: dc biasing of the
device

By: Dr. G.SUBBA RAO Electronic April 23,