UNIT 2

FUNDAMENTALS OF
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
UNIT-2 [ 12
periods ]
Knowledge Representation Issues

Knowledge Representation - Types of Knowledge - Knowledge Representation Cycle

- Approaches to Knowledge Representation.

Knowledge Representation Using Predicate Logic

Representing Simple Facts in Logic - Instance and ISA Relationships

-
Representing Computable Functions and Predicates -
Resolution.
2.1 Knowledge Representation Issues
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION
 Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting knowledge. Human knows things,
which is knowledge and as per their knowledge they perform various actions in the real world.
But how machines do all these things?, this comes under knowledge representation and
reasoning (KRR).
 Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial intelligence which
concerned with AI agents thinking and how thinking contributes to intelligent behaviour of
agents.
 Knowledge Representation is responsible for representing information to the system about the
real world so that a computer can understand and can utilize this knowledge to solve the
complex real world problems such as diagnosis a medical condition or communicating with
humans in natural language.
 Knowledge representation is not just storing data into some database, but it also enables an
intelligent machine to learn from that knowledge and experiences so that it can behave
intelligently like a human.
Following are the kind of knowledge which needs to
be represented in AI systems:  An intelligent agent
1. Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. needs
knowledge about the real
E.g., Guitars contains strings, trumpets are brass world for taking decisions
instruments. and reasoning to act
2. Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world. efficiently.
 Knowledge-based agents are
3. Performance: It describe behavior which involves those agents who have the
knowledge about how to do things. capability of maintaining an
4. Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know. internal state of knowledge,
reason over that knowledge,
5. Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what update their knowledge
we represent. after observations and take
6. Knowledge-Base: The central component of the actions. These
knowledge-based agents is the knowledge base. It is represent agents
represented as KB. The Knowledgebase is a group of the some formal
Sentences (Here, sentences are used as a technical term can the
representation and act
and not identical with the English language). intelligently. world
with
The Wumpus world is a simple world example to illustrate the worth of a knowledge-based agent and to represent
knowledge representation;

Click on below link to know more abut Wumpus

https://www.javatpoint.com/the-
wumpus-world-in-artificial-intelligence
TYP ES OF KNOW LEDGE

Object Facts
Relationship
between Object,
Concept

Rules of Thumb

Rules, Procedure

Knowledge
about
Knowledge
1. Declarative Knowledge
 Declarative knowledge is to know about something.
 It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
 It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in declarative sentences.
 It is simpler than procedural language.
2. Structural knowledge
 Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.
 It describes relationships between various concepts such as kind of, part of, and grouping of
something.
 It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or objects.
3. Procedural Knowledge
 It is also known as imperative knowledge.
 Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is responsible for knowing how to do
something.
 It can be directly applied to any task.
 It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.
 Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be applied.
4. Meta-knowledge
 Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-knowledge.
5. Heuristic knowledge
 Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts in a filed or subject.
 Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous experiences, awareness of approaches,
and which are good to work but not guaranteed.

One thing that differentiates human beings from machines is our conscience (the total of all the
knowledge we have gathered so far) or the ability to think and reason. Humans use this particular
ability to perform every single action in our life. If we want to impart this complex knowledge into a
machine, we need to give more advanced information to AI, which in turn resulted in the concept of
Knowledge Representation in AI.
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION CYCLE
An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for displaying intelligent behaviour:
1. Perception
2. Learning
3. Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
4. Planning
5. Execution

The above represented Knowledge Cycle is showing how an AI system can interact with the real
world and what components help it to show intelligence.
1. Perception
This will help the AI system gain information regarding its surroundings through various sensors,
thus making the AI system familiar with its environment and helping it interact with it. These senses
can be in the form of typical structured data or other forms such as video, audio, text, time,
temperature, or any other sensor-based input.
2. Learning Component
The learning component is responsible for learning from data captured by Perception
comportment. The goal is to build computers that can be taught instead of programming them.
Learning focuses on the process of self-improvement.
3. Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
As mentioned earlier, we use the knowledge, and based on it, we reason and then take any
decision. Thus, these two blocks are responsible for acting like humans go through all the
knowledge data and find the relevant ones to be provided to the learning model whenever it is
required.
4. Planning
The planning and execution depend on analysis of Knowledge representation and reasoning. These
are the final steps, i.e. Planning is done just before the execution if necessary.
5. Execution
This is considered as the final step and this is based on all the above stages. After execution the
feedback may be stored and analysed/learned.
 UNDERSTANDING
What is the Relation between Knowledge &
Intelligence?
KNOWLEDGE AND
 In the real world, knowledge plays a vital role in
INTELLIGENCE
IN HUMAN PRESPECTIVE
intelligence as well as creating artificial
intelligence. It demonstrates the intelligent
behavior in AI agents or systems. It is possible for
an agent or system to act accurately on some
input only when it has the knowledge or
experience about the input.
 Intelligence is all about doing the right things the
right way without asking for guidance while
knowledge needs one to acquire the skills to do
something.
 Without knowledge part, Agent will not be able
to display any intelligent behaviour like,
decision-making, problem-solving, etc. I.e.
Intelligence is the ability to apply knowledge.
APPROACHES TO KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION

There are mainly four approaches for knowledge representation

which are given as follows:
1.Simple relational knowledge
2.Inheritable knowledge
3.Inferential knowledge
4.Procedural knowledge
1. Simple relational knowledge Example
 It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses
Player Weight Age
the relational method, and each fact about a set
of the object is set out systematically in columns. Player1 65 23
 This approach of knowledge representation is
famous in database systems where the Player2 58 18
relationship between different
represented. entities is Player3 75 24
 This approach has little opportunity for inference.
2. Inheritable knowledge Example
 In the inheritable knowledge approach, all
data must be stored into a hierarchy of
classes.
 All classes should be arranged in a generalized
form or a hierarchal manner.
 In this approach, we apply inheritance
property.
 Elements inherit values from other members
of a class.
 This approach contains inheritable knowledge
which shows a relation between instance and
class, and it is called instance relation.
 Every individual frame can represent
the collection of attributes and its value.
 In this approach, objects and values
are represented in Boxed nodes.
 We use Arrows which point from objects to
their values.
3. Inferential knowledge Example
 Inferential knowledge approach Statement 1: Marcus is a man
represents
knowledge in the form of formal logics. Statement 2: All men are mortal
 Then it can represent as;
This approach can be used to derive more facts.  man(Marcus)
 It guaranteed correctness.  x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s
4. Procedural knowledge
 Procedural knowledge approach uses small programs and codes which describes how to do
specific things, and how to proceed.
 In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-Then rule (Specify a rule in IF and Specify
a action in THEN; if the condition meets the IF rule, it activates the action in THEN, if dosen’t
meet IF, then it don’t activate the action mentioned in THEN)
 In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages such as LISP language and Prolog
language.
 We can easily represent heuristic knowledge using this approach.
 But it is not possible to represent all cases/perceptions in this approach.
Requirements for knowledge Representation system:
A good knowledge representation system must
possess the following properties.
1. Representational Accuracy:
 KR system should have the ability to represent all
kind of required knowledge.
2. Inferential Adequacy:
 KR system should have ability to manipulate the
representational structures to produce new
knowledge corresponding to existing structure.
3. Inferential Efficiency:
 The ability to direct the inferential knowledge
mechanism into the most productive directions by
storing appropriate guides.
4. Acquisitional efficiency:
 The ability to acquire the new knowledge easily
using automatic methods.