CHAPTER I

Feedback in Amplifiers
Introduction
 Harold Black invented the feedback amplifier in 1928 while searching
for methods to stabilize the gain of amplifiers for use in telephone
repeaters.
 In a feedback system, a signal that is proportional to the output is fed back to the input
and combined with the input signal to produce a desired system response.
 Feedback can be either negative or positive. In negative feedback, a portion of the output
signal is subtracted from the input signal; in positive feedback, a portion of the output
signal is added to the input signal.
 Negative feedback maintain a constant value of amplifier voltage gain against variations
in transistor parameters, supply voltages, and temperature.
 Positive feedback is used in the design of oscillators and in a number of other applications
 we won`t focus on positive fb here.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Negative
Feedback
Advantages
1.Gain sensitivity. Variations in the circuit transfer function (gain) as
a result of changes in transistor parameters are reduced by feedback.
This reduction in sensitivity is one of the most attractive features of
negative feedback.
2.Bandwidth extension. The bandwidth of a circuit that incorporates
negative feedback is larger than that of the basic amplifier.
3.Noise sensitivity. Negative feedback may increase the signal-to-
noise ratio if noise is generated within the feedback loop.
4.Reduction of nonlinear distortion. Since transistors have
nonlinear characteristics, distortion may appear in the output signals,
especially at large signal levels. Negative feedback reduces this
distortion.
5.Control of impedance levels. The input and output impedances
can be increased or decreased with the proper type of negative
feedback circuit.
Disadvantages
1. Circuit gain. The overall amplifier gain, with negative feedback, is reduced
compared to the basic amplifier used in the circuit.
2. Stability. There is a possibility that the feedback circuit may become unstable
(oscillate) at high frequencies.

Fig.1.1 The basic representation of feedback amplifier

 Ideal Closed-Loop Signal Gain
From the above figure, the output signal is

Where A is the amplification factor and the feedback signal is

Where in this case is the feedback transfer function. At the summing node, we have;

Where is the input signal. Equation (1) then becomes

Equation 4 can be rearranged to yield the closed loop transfer function, or gain, which
is

signals Si, So, Sf b, and Sε can be either currents or voltages;

however, they do not need to be all voltages or all currents in a
given feedback amplifier.
Equation 5 can be written as

Where is the loop gain.

Example 1
1. Assume that the open-loop gain of a system is A = 10^5 and the
closed-loop gain is Af = 50.
Solution: From Equation (5), the closed-loop gain is
2. Assume that the open-loop gain is A = -105 and the close-loop gain is
Af = -50.
from Equation (5), the closed-loop gain is

Exercise 1. The open-loop gain of an amplifier is and the closed-loop gain is Af = 50. (i)
What is the feedback transfer function? (ii) What is the ratio of Af to 1/β? (b)
Repeat part (a) for A = 100 and Af = 20. (Ans. (a) (i) 0.01998, (ii) 0.9990; (b)
(i) 0.04, (ii) 0.80)
Reading assignment:- gain sensitivity, bandwidth extension and noise sensitivity
IDEAL FEEDBACK TOPOLOGIES
 There are four basic feedback topologies, based on the parameter to be amplified
(voltage or current) and the output parameter (voltage or current).
 The four connections/topologies are referred to as: series–shunt
(voltage amplifier), shunt–series (current amplifier), series–series
(transconductance amplifier), and shunt–shunt (trans resistance
amplifier). Look the figure below.
Based on the above basic feedback conections/topologies, we will determine
the ideal transfer functions and the ideal input and output resistances of each of
the four feedback topologies.
I. Series–Shunt Configuration
The circuit consists of a basic
voltage amplifier with an input
resistance Ri and an open-loop
voltage gain Av. The
feedback circuit samples
the output voltage and produces
a feedback voltage Vfb, which is in series with the input signal voltage Vi. In
this ideal configuration, the input resistance to the feedback circuit is infinite;
therefore, there is no loading effect on the output of the basic amplifier due to
the feedback circuit.
 Voltage Vε is the difference between the input signal voltage and the
feedback voltage and is called an error signal.
 The feedback circuit is a voltage-controlled voltage source and is an
ideal voltage amplifier. The feedback circuit samples the output voltage
and provides a feedback voltage in series with the source voltage.
 an increase in the output voltage produces an increase in the feedback
voltage, which in turn decreases the error voltage due to the negative
feedback. Then, the smaller error voltage is amplified producing a
smaller output voltage, which means that the output signal tends to be
stabilized.
 If the output of the feedback network is an open circuit, then the output
voltage is

And the feedback voltage is

assuming the source resistance Rs is negligible, the error voltage will be

 Equation (10) is the closed-loop voltage gain of the feedback
amplifier, and it has the same form as the ideal feedback transfer
function given by Equation (5).
 The input resistance including feedback is denoted by Rif . Starting
with Equation (7), using Equations (8) and (9), we find that
 ……………………………………………………………………………….(11)
Or
 …………………………………………………………………………..(12)
 The input current is
 ………………………………………………………….………(13)

and the input resistance with feedback is then

 ……………………………………………………………………(14)

 Equation (14) shows that a series input connection results in an increased input
resistance compared to that of the basic voltage amplifier. A large input
resistance is a desirable property of a voltage amplifier. This eliminates loading
effects on the input signal source.
 The output resistance of the feedback circuit can be
determined from the equivalent circuit in Figure 4. The input
signal voltage source is set equal to zero (a short circuit), and
a test voltage is applied to the output terminals.

fig 4. Ideal series–shunt

feedback configuration for
determining output resistance
 From the circuit, we see that
…………….(15)
 Or
…………….(16)
 The output current is
……………………………………..(17)

 and the output resistance, including feedback, is

…………………………….(18)
 Equation (18) shows that a shunt output connection results in a decreased
output resistance compared to that of the basic voltage amplifier. A small
output resistance is a desirable property of a voltage amplifier. This
eliminates loading effects on the output signal when an output load is
connected.
 The equivalent circuit of this feedback voltage amplifier is shown in Figure 5
 Fig 5. Equivalent circuit of the
series–shunt feedback circuit or
voltage amplifier

 Example
Determine the input resistance of a series input connection and the output
resistance of a shunt output connection for an ideal feedback voltage
amplifier. Consider a series–shunt feedback amplifier in which the open-
loop gain is Av = 10^5 and the closed-loop gain is Avf = 50. Assume the
input and output resistances of the basic amplifier are Ri = 10 k and Ro =
20 k, respectively.

input resistance
output resistance
 II. Shunt–Series Configuration
• The configuration of an ideal shunt–series feedback amplifier is shown
in Figure 6. The circuit consists of a basic current amplifier with an input
resistance Ri and an open-loop current gain Ai. The feedback circuit
samples the output current and produces a feedback current If b, which is
in shunt with an input signal current Ii. In this ideal configuration, the
feedback circuit does not load down the basic amplifier output;
therefore, the load current Io is not affected.

• Fig 6. Ideal shunt–series

feedback topology
• Current Iε is the difference between the input signal current and the feedback
current and is the error signal. The error signal is amplified in the basic current
amplifier.
• This circuit is a current-controlled current source and is an ideal current
amplifier. The feedback circuit samples the output current and provides a
feedback signal in shunt with the signal current. An increase in output current
produces an increase in feedback current, which in turn decreases the error
current. The smaller error current is then amplified, producing a smaller output
current and stabilizing the output signal.
• The input source shown is a Norton equivalent circuit; it could be converted to a
Thevenin equivalent circuit.
• If the output is essentially a short circuit, then the output current is
……………………..(19)
• And the feedback current is
………….(20)
The parameter is the feedback current transfer function. The input signal current,
assuming Rs is large, is
…………..(21)
• Combining equations 19, 20 and 21 yields the closed-loop current transfer
function.
• ……………..(22)

• The input resistance of the shunt–series configuration is Ri f

• ……..(22)
• Or
• ……………………(23)

• The input voltage is ……(24)

• The input resistance with feedback is then
• ……………(25)
• Equation (25) shows that a shunt input connection decreases the input
resistance compared to that of the basic amplifier. A small input
resistance is a desirable property of a current amplifier, to avoid loading
effects on the input signal current source.
• The output resistance of the feedback circuit can be determined from the
equivalent circuit in Figure 7. The input signal current is set equal to zero
(an open circuit) and a test current is applied to the output terminals.
Since the input signal current source is assumed to be ideal we have RS =
∞.
•

• Fig 7. Ideal shunt–series

feedback configuration
for determining output resistance
• From the circuit, we see that
……………(26)
• Or ………………………(27)
• The output voltage can be written as

• ….(28)
• ………………….(29)
• series output connection increases the output resistance compared to
that of the basic amplifier.

• Fig 8. Equivalent circuit of shunt–series

feedback circuit, or current amplifier
 Example
• Determine the input resistance of a shunt input connection and the output resistance of a
series output connection, for a feedback current amplifier. Consider a shunt–series
feedback amplifier in which the open-loop gain is Ai = 10^5 and the closed-loop gain is
Ai f = 50. Assume the input and output resistances of the basic amplifier are Ri = 10 k and
Ro = 20 k, respectively

• Note that With a shunt input connection, the input resistance

decreases drastically, and with a series output connection,
the output resistance increases substantially, assuming
negative feedback
 III. Series–Series Configuration

The feedback samples a portion of the output current and converts it to a voltage. This feedback
circuit can therefore be thought of as a voltage-to-current amplifier.

Fig 9 Ideal series–series

feedback topology

The circuit consists of a basic amplifier that converts the error voltage to an
output current with a gain factor Ag and that has an input resistance Ri . The
feedback circuit samples the output current and produces a feedback
voltage Vf b, which is in series with the input signal voltage Vi.
• Assuming the output is essentially a short circuit, the output current is
and
the feedback voltage is

where βz is called a resistance feedback transfer function, with units of

resistance.
The input signal voltage, neglecting the effect of RS, is Vi = Vε + Vf b
Combining these equations, as we have in previous analyses, yields the
closed-loop
current-to-voltage transfer function,

………………………..(30)

The units of the transfer function given by Equation (30) are

amperes/volt, or conductance. We may note that the term βz,Ag is
dimensionless. This particular feedback circuit is therefore called a
• The input resistance for the series connection is given by Equation (25) and The
output resistance for the series connection is given by Equation (29).

Fig 10 Equivalent circuit of series–series feedback circuit, or transconductance

amplifier

IV. Shunt–Shunt Configuration

• The feedback samples a portion of the output voltage and converts it to a
current. This feedback circuit can therefore be thought of as a current-to-voltage
amplifier.
• The circuit consists of a basic amplifier that converts the error current to an
output voltage with a gain factor Az and that has an input resistance Ri .
• The feedback circuit samples the output voltage and produces a
feedback current Ifb, which is in shunt with the input signal current Ii.

Fig 11 Ideal shunt–shunt

feedback topology

Assuming the output is essentially an open circuit, the output voltage is

Vo = Az Iε and the feedback current is Ifb = βgVo .
where βg is the conductance feedback transfer function, with units of
conductance.
The input signal current, assuming RS is very large, is Ii = Iε + Ifb
• Combining these equations yields the closed-loop voltage-to-current
transfer function,
• ………………..(31)

• The units of the transfer function given by Equation (31) are volts/ampere,
or resistance. We may note that the term βg Az is dimensionless. This
particular feedback circuit is therefore referred to as a trans resistance
amplifier.
The input and output resistances are again a function of only the types of
input and output connections, respectively. The input resistance is given
by Equation (25) and the output resistance is given by Equation (18).

• Fig 12 Equivalent circuit

of shunt–shunt feedback
circuit or, trans resistance amplifier
 Summary of Results
• The summary is
 Analysis of feedback topology
• VOLTAGE (SERIES–SHUNT) AMPLIFIERS
its op -amp representation is shown below.

• Fig 13. Example of

an op-amp
series–shunt
feedback circuit and
its equivalent circuit

• From previous slide concerning to series-shunt amplifiers feedback, we derived closed loop
transfer function as by equation 10. for large ,
• For the ideal noninverting op-amp amplifier
• We derive the equation from the equivalent circuit as
• for Ro ≈ 0 , ……………..(32)
• And ………………(33)
• Therefore, …………………(34)
• Using voltage dividing rule and assuming Ri is very large, the feedback voltage is
given by
• …………………..(35)
• Substituting Equation (35) into (34) and rearranging terms, we obtain
• ………………….(36)
 ………………………………(37)
• For the input resistance, Rif, calculation,
• …………….(38)
• The expression for the input resistance for the op-amp circuit has the
same form as that for the ideal series input connection.
• Example:- Determine the expected input resistance of the noninverting
op-amp circuit. Consider the noninverting op-amp in Figure 13, with
parameters Ri = 50 k, R1 = 10 k, R2 = 90 k, and Av = 10^4.
II. CURRENT (SHUNT–SERIES) AMPLIFIERS

Fig 14. op-amp shunt–series feedback circuit and its equivalent representation
• If , then.
• The parameter Ai is the open-loop current gain. We have
……..………..(39)
• And ………….(40)
• Therefore, …………..(41)
• If we again assume that V1 is at virtual ground, voltage Vo is given by
• ……………………(42)
• We can then write
• ………..(43)
• The output current is also expressed as
• ……………………………….(44)

• Solving for Ifb from Equation (44), substituting that into Equation (41), and
rearranging terms yields the closed-loop current gain

• …………………………..(45)

• Since the current feedback transfer function is βi = 1/[1 + (RF/R1)], the

closed-loop current gain expression for the op-amp current amplifier has
the same form as that for the ideal shunt–series configuration.
 Simple Discrete Circuit Representation
• Look the figure below showing common base circuit.

• Fig 1.15 (a) Equivalent

circuit for simple common-base
circuit and (b) reconfigured circuit

The output current is equal to the feedback current, which means that the feedback transfer
function is βi = 1. The basic amplifier gain is

which is simply the common-emitter current gain of the transistor. From Figure l.15(b), we see
that the closed-loop current transfer function or gain is

Which is similar as equation(45) due to unity feedback

 Discrete Circuit Representation
• Common base circuit, look the figure below

Fig 1.16 (a) Common-base

circuit, including biasing
and (b) ac equivalent circuit

Resistor RE and the supply voltages V + and V - bias the transistor in the forward-active mode.
We can show that the current gain is

Which does not have the same form as the ideal shunt–series feedback transfer function. This is
common in many discrete transistor feedback circuits. The reason is that resistor RE introduces
loading effects that are not present in the ideal configuration.
 Trans conductance(series-series) amplifiers
• Op-Amp Circuit Representation

• Fig 17 an op-amp series–series feedback circuit and its equivalent circuit.

 Taking a finite amplifier open-loop transconductance gain, Ag, into

account and assuming collector and emitter currents are nearly equal for
the equivalent circuit shown above, we can write the equation as
• …………………………(46)
• Also, …………………………..(47)
• Substituting Equation (47) into Equation (46) yields
• ………………………...(48)
• which can be rearranged to yield the closed-loop transfer function,

• …………………………(49)
• ……………..……………..(50)

• Equation 49 has the same form as that of the ideal theory. In this example,
we see that in
this feedback network, the transistor current gain is part of the basic
amplifier gain.
• The discrete circuit representation

Fig 1.18 a discrete transistor

series–series feedback circuit
and its equivalent

 The output current can be written

• and the feedback voltage is

• A KVL equation around the B–E loop yields
• the transconductance transfer function,

• the closed-loop transfer function of the discrete transistor feedback circuit cannot be put in
exactly the same form as that of the ideal series–series feedback network. Resistor RC
introduces loading on the output, and rπ introduces loading on the input. If both RC and rπ
become large, then the above Equation changes to the ideal form, where the feedback
transfer function is βz = -RE and the basic amplifier transconductance is Ag = -gm.
• TRANSRESISTANCE (SHUNT-SHUNT) AMPLIFIRES

• Fig 19 (a) The basic inverting op-amp circuit and (b) the circuit showing the
shunt input connection
• Figure 16(b) shows the same as fig 16(a) circuit without the input
resistance. From this configuration, we see the input shunt connection. The
input current splits between the feedback current Ifb and the error current
Iε. The shunt output connection samples the output voltage; therefore, the
feedback current is a function of the output voltage.
• Note that the input has been connected to the inverting terminal of op-amp amplifier.
• Lets draw the equivalent circuit of the above figure.

• Fig1.20
Equivalent circuit,
op-amp shunt–shunt
feedback configuration

• the parameter Az is the open-loop trans resistance gain factor, and is negative since the error
current Iε is considered to be positive entering the inverting terminal. We can write
•
• If we assume that voltage V1 is at virtual ground, then . Combining
equations, we see that the closed-loop trans resistance transfer function is

…………………………….(51)
• The feedback transfer function is
• This feedback circuit is one example in which the open-loop gain of the
basic amplifier, , is negative. The feedback transfer function, , is also
negative, but the loop gain is positive for this negative feedback circuit.
• The trans resistance transfer function for the inverting op-amp circuit has
the same form as that for the ideal shunt–shunt configuration. In addition,
since V1 is at virtual ground, the input resistance including feedback, , is
essentially zero, and we have shown that the output resistance with
feedback, , is very small. These small resistance values are a result of the
shunt–shunt configuration.

• Discrete circuit representation

Figure 1.21 shows a single bipolar transistor circuit, which is an example of a shunt–shunt
feedback configuration. The input signal current is , the feedback current is , and the error
signal current is and is the signal base current. The shunt output samples the output voltage;
therefore, the feedback current is a function of .
• Fig 1.21 discrete transistor
shunt–shunt feedback circuit
and its equivalent(right)

• Writing a KCL equation at the output node, we find

• A KCL equation at the input node yields

• Solving input node Equation for Vπ and substituting that result into output node Equation of
the above, we obtain

• The trans resistance transfer function is then

• The open-loop trans resistance gain factor Az is found by setting RF = ∞. We find

• Reading assignment
• For voltage feedback amplifiers topologies read the “Discrete Circuit
Representation” to enhance your knowledge on transistor –amplifier relation.
 I. Effect of feedback on loop gain

• Fig 1.22 (a) Ideal configuration of a feedback amplifier; (b) basic feedback
network with loop broken at amplifier input
• From the figure, and ,
……………………………..(52)
The ratio of the return signal Sr to the test signal St is the negative of the loop
gain factor

• As the feedback loop is broken, the conditions that existed prior to the loop being
broken must remain unchanged. These conditions include: maintaining the same
transistor biasing and maintaining the same impedance at the return point. An
equivalent impedance must therefore be inserted at the point where the loop is
broken.
• Fig 1.23 (a) Basic feedback network, showing amplifier input resistance and
(b) feedback network after the loop is broken, showing test voltage and
load resistance.
• A test voltage Vt is applied, and a load impedance Rin is inserted at the
output of the broken loop. The return voltage is then measured at this
output terminal. The loop gain is found to be
………………………….(53)
• Also, a test current It may be applied and a return current signal Ir
measured, to find the loop gain as
………………………………….(54)
Fig 1.24 (a) Feedback circuit prior to breaking the loop and (b) small-signal
equivalent circuit after breaking the loop
• Since Vπ = Vt , if we define Req = RS||R1||R2||rπ , then the output voltage
can be written

…………………(1.55)
• From voltage divider, the return voltage Vr expression is,
……………..(56)

• Substituting Equation (55) into Equation (56) yields the loop gain

• ………..(57)

• which can be written as

…..(58)

• Example. Determine the loop gain for a feedback circuit. Consider the circuit shown in
Figure 1.24(a), with transistor parameters: hFE = 100, VBE(on) = 0.7 V, and VA = ∞. From the
above, the quiescent collector current is ICQ = 0.492 mA, and the resulting small-signal
parameters are rπ = 5.28 k and gm = 18.9 mA/V.
• Solution: The equivalent resistance is
• From Equation (58), the loop gain is

• Comment: Since the loop gain is a function of the basic amplifier gain, we expect this
parameter to change as the transistor current gain changes. Also, since no capacitance effects
were considered, the loop gain is a positive, real number that corresponds to negative
feedback.
• Exercise:- Consider the circuit in Figure 24(a) with a new value of RE = 1k.
The transistor parameters are: hFE = 120, VBE (on) = 0.7 V, and VA = ∞.
Determine the loop gain T. (Ans. T = 2.75).
• II. Effect of feedback on stability
• The open-loop gain is a function of the individual transistor parameters and capacitances, and
is therefore a function of frequency. The closed-loop gain can then be written as
• ………………(59)

• where T(s) is the loop gain. For physical frequencies, s = jω, and the loop gain is T( jω),
which is a complex function. The loop gain can be represented by its magnitude and phase, as
follows: …………(60)
• The closed loop gain can be written
• …….. …..(61)

• The stability of the feedback circuit is a function of the loop gain T( jω). If the loop gain
magnitude is unity when the phase is 180 degrees, then T( jω) = -1 and the closed-loop gain
goes to infinity. This implies that an output will exist for a zero input, which means that the
circuit will oscillate.
• If we are trying to build a linear amplifier, an oscillator is considered an unstable circuit. We
will show that if |T ( jω)| < 1 when the phase is 180 degrees, the system is stable, whereas if |T (
jω)| ≥ 1 when the phase is 180 degrees, the system is unstable. To study the stability of feedback
circuits, we must therefore analyze the frequency response of the loop gain factor.
• Bode Plots
Figure 25(a) shows a simple single-stage common-emitter current amplifier. The high-
frequency small-signal equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 25(b). The capacitance C1 includes
the forward-biased base-emitter junction capacitance as well as the effective Miller capacitance.

• Fig 25 (a) Single-stage

common-emitter
amplifier and
(b) small-signal
equivalent
circuit, including input
capacitance
• …………..(62)

• …………..(63)
• where Rπ = rπ||RB = rπ||R1||R2 .

• ...............................................(64)
• By substituting equ(64) into equ(62) we getan expression for the small signal current gain,
.......(65)

• When we set s = jω = j(2πf ), Equation (65) can be written as

• …………………………..(66)
• where Aio is the low-frequency or mid band gain and f1 is the upper 3 dB
frequency. The gain is a complex function that can be written

…..……………(67)

• Fig 26 Bode plots of current gain for single-stage common-emitter

amplifier: (a) magnitude and (b) phase

• Notice:- read the two or three stage amplifier bode plot and Nyquist
stability criteria.
Effect of feedback on frequency compensation
• The general technique of making a feedback system stable is called frequency
compensation.
• One basic method of frequency compensation involves introducing a new pole in the loop
gain function, at a sufficiently low frequency that |T ( f )| = 1 occurs when |φ| < . As an
example, consider the Bode plots of a three-pole loop gain magnitude and phase given in
Figure 27 and shown by the solid lines. In this case, when the magnitude of the loop gain is
unity, the phase is nearly -270 degrees and the system is unstable.
• If we introduce a new pole fPD at a very low frequency, and if we assume that the original
three poles do not change, the new Bode plots of the magnitude and phase will be as shown
by the dotted lines in Figure 27.
• In this situation, the magnitude of the loop gain becomes unity when the phase is |φ|, and
the system is stable. Since the pole is introduced at a low frequency and since it dominates
the frequency response, it is called a dominant pole. This fourth pole can be introduced by
adding a fourth stage with an extremely large input capacitance. Though not practical, this
method demonstrates the basic idea of stabilizing a circuit.
• Fig 27 Bode plots of loop gain magnitude and phase for three-stage amplifier, before
frequency compensation (solid curves), and after frequency compensation (dotted curves)
• Example Determine the dominant pole required to stabilize a feedback
system. Consider a three-pole feedback amplifier with a loop gain given
by
• Insert a dominant pole, assuming the original poles do not change, such that the phase margin
is at least 45 degrees.
• Or

• Exercise Consider a three-pole amplifier with a loop gain function given by

a) Show that the system is unstable. (b) Stabilize the circuit by inserting a new
dominant pole. Assume the original poles are not altered. At what frequency
must the new pole be placed to achieve a phase margin of 60◦
Problem-Solving Technique: Frequency Compensation
1. To stabilize a circuit, insert a dominant pole or move an existing pole to a
dominant pole position. Assume that the dominant pole frequency is
small. Determine the frequency of the resulting loop gain function to
achieve the required phase margin.
2. Set the magnitude of the loop gain function equal to unity at the
frequency determined in step 1 to find the required dominant pole
frequency.
3. To actually achieve the required dominant pole frequency in the circuit, a
number of techniques are available (for example, see Miller
compensation).
 One disadvantage of this frequency compensation method is that the loop gain magnitude,
and in turn the open-loop gain magnitude, is drastically reduced over a very wide frequency
range. This affects the closed-loop response of the feedback amplifier. However, the
advantage of maintaining a stable amplifier greatly outweighs the disadvantage of a reduced
gain, demonstrating another trade-off in design criteria.
Closed-Loop Frequency Response
For the region in which the frequency response is characterized by the
dominant pole, the open-loop amplifier gain is
……………………(68)

• where Ao is the low-frequency gain and is the dominant-pole frequency.

The feedback amplifier closed-loop gain can be expressed as
• …………..(69)
• where β is the feedback transfer ratio, which is assumed to be
independent of frequency. Substituting Equation (68) into (69), we can
write the closed-loop gain as

• …………..(70)

• The term Ao/(1 + β Ao) is the closed-loop low-frequency gain, and fPD(1 + β Ao) = fC is the 3
dB frequency of the closed-loop system.
• Figure 28 shows the Bode plot of the gain magnitude for the open-loop parametersand , at
several feedback transfer ratios. As the closed-loop gain decreases, the bandwidth increases.
As previously determined, the gain–bandwidth product is essentially a constant.

• Fig 28 Bode plot,

gain magnitude
for open-loop and
three closed-loop conditions

EXAMPLE
Determine the shift in the 3 dB frequency when an amplifier is operated in
a closed-loop system. Consider an amplifier with a low-frequency open-loop
gain of and an open-loop 3 dB frequency of . The feedback transfer ratio is .
• From equation (70) above. The closed loop 3dB frequency is

Exercise An amplifier has an open loop response given by

• Reading assignment

• Miller Compensation
• DESIGN APPLICATION: A MOSFET FEEDBACK CIRCUIT