Module 1

Computer Hardware – CPU,

Memory - Memory hierarchy: registers, cache, RAM, virtual
memory, Motherboard - Computer Peripherals - I/O devices,
Storage devices- HDDs, SSDs, optical drives,
I/O communication and device management,
Interface cards – Buses – Firmware - Boot process
 COMPONENTS OF THE COMPUTER
SYSTEM

• There are three components required for the implementation of a computerized input-
process-
output model:
1. The computer hardware, which provides the physical mechanisms to input and output data,
to manipulate and process data, and to electronically control the various input, output, and
storage components.
2. The software, both application and system software, which provides instructions that tell
the hardware exactly what tasks are to be performed and in what order.
3. The data that is being manipulated and processed. This data may be numeric, it may be
alphanumeric, it may be graphic, or it may take some other form, but in all cases it
must be representable in a form that the computer can manipulate.
• The communication component, which consists of hardware and software that transport
programs and data between interconnected computer systems.

• The hardware and system software components make up the architecture of the computer
system. The communication component connects individual computer systems together.
The Hardware Component
• The most visible part of the computer system is obviously the hardware that makes up the
system.
• Eg: Consider the computer system upon which you write and execute your programs. You
use a keyboard and mouse to provide input of your program text and data, as well as for
commands to the computer.
• A display screen is commonly used to observe output. These are all physical components.
• Calculations and other operations in your program are performed by a central processing
unit (CPU) inside the computer.
• Memory is provided to hold your programs and data while processing is taking place.
• Other input and output devices, such as a disk and SD plug-in cards, are used to provide long-
term storage of your program and data files.
• Data and programs are transferred between the various input/output devices and memory for
the CPU to use.
• The CPU, memory, and all the input, output, and storage devices form the hardware part of
a
computer system.
• A typical hardware block diagram for a computer is seen in Figure.
Hardware block diagram
Common Input/Output Devices
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• CPU [Central Processing Unit]. It is the brain of the computer. It is the part that does most
of the work in a computer system.
• All types of data processing operations from simple arithmetic to complex tasks and all the
important functions of a computer are performed by the CPU.
• A CPU can be installed into a CPU socket. These sockets are generally located on the
motherboard.
Types of CPU
We have three different types of CPU:
• Single Core CPU: The oldest type of computer CPU is a single-core CPU. This means
that the single-core CPU can only process one operation at a single time. single-core CPU
CPU is not suitable for multitasking.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• Dual-Core CPU: Dual-Core CPUs contain a single Integrated Circuit with two cores.
• Each core has its cache and controller.
• These controllers and cache work as a single unit. Dual-core CPUs can work faster than
single-
core processors.
• Quad-Core CPU: Quad-Core CPUs contain two dual-core processors present within a
single integrated circuit (IC) or chip.
• A quad-core processor contains a chip with four independent cores.
• Quad Core CPU increases the overall speed of programs.
CPU
Central Processing Unit (CPU)….

The CPU itself is often viewed as a composition of three primary subunits:

1. The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) where arithmetic and Boolean logical calculations are
performed.
2.The control unit (CU), which controls the processing of instructions and the movement of
internal CPU data from one part of the CPU to another.
3.The interface unit, which moves program instructions and data between the CPU and
other hardware components.
• The interface unit interconnects the CPU with memory and also with the various I/O
(input/output) modules. It can also be used to connect multiple CPUs together.
• In many computer systems, a bus interconnects the CPU, memory, and all of the I/O components.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)….

• A bus is simply a bundle of wires that carry signals and power between different
components.
• In other systems, the I/O modules are connected to the CPU through one or more separate
processors known as channels.
Memory
• Computer memory is just like the human brain. It is used to store data/information and
instructions.
• It is a data storage unit or a data storage device where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored.
• It can store both the input and output can be stored here.
• The main memory, often known as primary storage, working storage, or RAM (for random
access memory), holds programs and data for access by the CPU.
• Primary storage is made up of a large number of cells, each numbered and individually
addressable.
• Each cell holds a single binary number representing part of a data value or part of an instruction.
• The smallest addressable size of the cell in most current computers is 8 bits, known as a byte
of memory.
Memory(Cont..)
Primary Memory

• It is also known as the main memory of the computer system. It is used to store data and
programs or instructions during computer operations. It uses semiconductor technology and
hence is commonly called semiconductor memory. Primary memory is of two types:
• RAM (Random Access Memory)
• ROM (Read Only Memory)
RAM (Random Access Memory):
• The most common type of memory is called random access memory (RAM). As a result, the term
memory is typically used to mean RAM..
• RAM is like an electronic scratch pad inside the computer. RAM holds data and program
instructions while the CPU works with them.
• When a program is launched, it is loaded into and run from memory. As the program needs data,
it is loaded into memory for fast access.
• As new data is entered into the computer, it is also stored in memory but only temporarily.
• RAM is volatile, meaning that it loses its contents when the computer is shut off or if there is
a power failure. Therefore, RAM needs a constant supply of power to hold its data..
RAM(Cont..)
• The most common measurement unit for describing a computers memory is the byte—the
amount of memory it takes to store a single character such as a letter of the alphabet or a
numeral.
RAM is of two types:
• S RAM (Static RAM): S RAM uses transistors and the circuits of this memory are capable
of retaining their state as long as the power is applied.
• This memory consists of the number of flip flops with each flip flop storing 1 bit. It has less
access
time and hence, it is faster.
• D RAM (Dynamic RAM): D RAM uses capacitors and transistors and stores the data as a
charge on the capacitors.
• They contain thousands of memory cells. It needs refreshing of charge on capacitor after a few
milliseconds. This memory is slower than S RAM.
ROM(Read-Only Memory)
• Unlike RAM, Read-only memory (ROM) permanently stores its data, even when the computer
is shut off.
• ROM is called nonvolatile memory because it never loses its contents.
• Whenever the computer's power is turned on, it checks ROM for directions that help it start up,
and for information about its hardware devices.
• ROM is used to store information that is used to operate the system. As its name refers to read-
only memory, we can only read the programs and data that is stored on it.
• The information stored in the ROM in binary format. It is also known as permanent memory.
ROM is of four types:
ROM (Cont..)
• PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): This read-only memory is modifiable once by
the user. The user purchases a blank PROM and uses a PROM program to put the required
contents into the PROM. Its content can’t be erased once written.
• EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): EPROM is an extension to PROM
where you can erase the content of ROM by exposing it to Ultraviolet rays for nearly 40
minutes.
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): Here the written
contents can be erased electrically. You can delete and reprogramme EEPROM up to 10,000
times.
• Erasing and programming take very little time, i.e., nearly 4 -10 ms(milliseconds). Any area in
an
EEPROM can be wiped and programmed selectively.
• MROM(Masked ROM): Hard-wired devices with a pre-programmed collection of data or
instructions were the first ROMs. Masked ROMs are a type of low-cost ROM that works in
this way.
Difference Between RAM and ROM
Difference Between RAM and ROM
Secondary Memory

• It is also known as auxiliary memory and backup memory. It is a non-volatile memory and used
to store a large amount of data or information.
• The data or information stored in secondary memory is permanent, and it is slower than primary
memory.
• A CPU cannot access secondary memory directly. The data/information from the auxiliary
memory is first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
• Examples: Hard Disk, Floppy Disk, Magnetic Tapes, etc.
Difference between Primary and secondary
memory
Primary memory Secondary memory
The primary memory of a computer is the Secondary memory defines to additional
main memory that is utilized to store data temporarily. storage devices that are utilized to store data
permanently.
Primary memory is temporary. Secondary memory is permanent.
Primary memory is faster than secondary Secondary memory is non-volatile, which means
memory because it is directly accessible to the CPU. it retains data even when the power is off.
Primary memory is directly accessible Secondary memory is not directly accessible by the
by Processor/CPU. CPU.
Nature of Parts of Primary memory varies,
It’s always Non-volatile in nature.
RAM- volatile in nature. ROM- Non-volatile.
Primary memory is volatile, which means it is wiped Since it is non-volatile, data can be retained in case of
out when the computer is turned off. a power failure.
Primary memory devices are more expensive Secondary memory devices are less expensive when
than secondary storage devices. compared to primary memory devices.
Difference between Primary and secondary
memory
The memory devices used for primary memory are The secondary memory devices are magnetic and
semiconductor memories. optical memories.
It can hold data/information currently being used by It can hold data/information that are not
the processing unit. currently being used by the processing unit.
It stores a considerable amount of data and
The capacity of primary memory is usually within the
information. The capacity of secondary memory ranges
range of 16 to 32 GB.
from 200 GB to some terabytes.
Primary memory is also known as Main memory or Secondary memory is also known as External memory
Internal memory. or Auxiliary memory.
It can be accessed by a data bus. It can be accessed using I/O channels.
Examples: RAM, ROM, Cachememory, Examples: Hard Disk, Floppy Disk, Magnetic Tapes,
PROM, EPROM, Registers, etc. etc.
Memory Hierarchy
Memory Hierarchy (Cont..)
• Computer storage is often conceptualized hierarchically, based upon the speed with which data
can be accessed.
• The table in Figure shows this hierarchy, together with some typical access times.
• At the top of the hierarchy are the CPU registers used to hold data for the short term
while processing is taking place.
• Access to registers is essentially instantaneous, since the registers are actually a part of
the CPU.
• Cache memory, if present, is the fastest memory outside the CPU.
• The CPU will always attempt to access current instructions and data in cache memory before
it looks at conventional memory.
Memory Hierarchy (Cont..)
• There may be as many as three different levels of cache L1,L2,L3.
• The CPU accesses the data or instruction in conventional memory if cache memory is not present.
• Next in the hierarchy is conventional memory. Both conventional and cache memory are
referred to as primary memory. Both provide immediate access to program instructions and
data by the CPU and can be used for the execution of programs.
• Below the level of conventional memory, storage in the hierarchy is not immediately available
to the CPU, is referred to as secondary storage, and is treated as I/O.
• Data and programs in secondary storage must be copied to primary memory for CPU access.
• Except for flash memory, access to secondary storage is significantly slower than primary
storage.
• Disks and other secondary storage devices are mechanical in nature, and mechanical devices are
of necessity slower than devices that are purely electronic.
Memory Hierarchy (Cont..)
• The location of the desired data is usually not immediately accessible, and the medium must
be physically moved to provide access to the correct location.
• This requires a seek time, the time needed to find the desired location.
• Once the correct data is located, it must be moved into primary memory for use.
• One important advantage of secondary storage, is its permanence, or lack of volatility.
• Flash memory uses a special type of transistor that can hold data indefinitely without power.
• The magnetic media used for disk and tape and the optical media used for DVD and CD disks
also
retain data indefinitely.
• Secondary storage has the additional advantage that it may be used to store massive amounts
of data.
Memory Hierarchy (Cont..)
• The additional advantage that secondary storage may be used for offline archiving, for
moving data easily from machine to machine, and for offline backup storage.
• For example a removable hard disk can be used to move large amounts of data between
computers.
• Optical disks require little space and can store large amounts of data for archiving and
installation purposes, with rapid mounting for retrieval when required.
• Of the various secondary storage components, flash memory and disk devices are the fastest,
since data can be accessed randomly.
Memory Hierarchy (Cont..)
This Memory Hierarchy Design is divided into 2 main types:
• External Memory or Secondary Memory: Comprising of Magnetic Disk, Optical Disk,
and Magnetic Tape i.e. peripheral storage devices which are accessible by the processor
via an I/O Module.
• Internal Memory or Primary Memory: Comprising of Main Memory, Cache Memory &
CPU registers . This is directly accessible by the processor.
Memory Hierarchy (Cont..)
Registers
• Registers are small, high-speed memory units located in the CPU. They are used to store the most
frequently used data and instructions. Registers have the fastest access time and the
smallest storage capacity, typically ranging from 16 to 64 bits.
Cache Memory
• Cache memory is a small, fast memory unit located close to the CPU. It stores frequently used data
and instructions that have been recently accessed from the main memory. Cache memory
is designed to minimize the time it takes to access data by providing the CPU with quick access
to frequently used data.
Main Memory
• Main memory , also known as RAM (Random Access Memory), is the primary memory of a
computer system. It has a larger storage capacity than cache memory, but it is slower.
Main memory is used to store data and instructions that are currently in use by the CPU.
Memory Hierarchy (Cont..)

Secondary Storage
• Secondary storage, such as hard disk drives (HDD) and solid-state drives (SSD) , is a non-volatile
memory unit that has a larger storage capacity than main memory. It is used to store data
and instructions that are not currently in use by the CPU. Secondary storage has the slowest
access time and is typically the least expensive type of memory in the memory hierarchy.
Magnetic Disk
• Magnetic Disks are simply circular plates that are fabricated with either a metal or a plastic or a
magnetized material. The Magnetic disks work at a high speed inside the computer and these
are frequently used.
Magnetic Tape
• Magnetic Tape is simply a magnetic recording device that is covered with a plastic film. It is
generally used for the backup of data. In the case of a magnetic tape, the access time for a
computer is a little slower and therefore, it requires some amount of time for accessing the
strip.
Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy

• Capacity: It is the global volume of information the memory can store. As we move from top
to bottom in the Hierarchy, the capacity increases.
• Access Time: It is the time interval between the read/write request and the availability of the
data.
As we move from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the access time increases.
• Performance: One of the most significant ways to increase system performance is
minimizing how far down the memory hierarchy one has to go to manipulate data.
• Cost Per Bit: As we move from bottom to top in the Hierarchy, the cost per bit increases i.e.
Internal Memory is costlier than External Memory.
Virtual Memory
• Virtual memory is a memory management technique used by modern operating systems to
create an illusion for the user of having a larger main memory (RAM) than what is physically
available.
• It provides the system with the ability to run larger programs or multiple programs
simultaneously, even if the physical RAM is limited.

• It's a common feature of computers' operating systems (OS).

• It allows a computer to compensate for physical memory limitations by temporarily
transferring data from RAM to disk storage.
Virtual Memory

• The operating system uses part of the hard disk or SSD as virtual memory. This is known as a
swap space or page file.

• When the RAM is full, the OS transfers less frequently used data (pages) from RAM to the disk
and retrieves them when needed.
• Virtual memory is divided into fixed-size blocks called pages.
• The RAM is divided into frames of the same size.
• The OS keeps track of which pages are in RAM and which are on the disk using a page table.
• If a program requests data that is not currently in RAM, a page fault occurs.
• The OS retrieves the required page from the disk and loads it into RAM, possibly replacing an
existing page.
Virtual Memory

Advantages
• Allows multiple applications to run simultaneously, even if their combined memory requirements
exceed the physical RAM.
• Only the active parts of a program need to be in RAM, reducing wasted space.
• Each program operates within its own virtual memory space, providing better security and
stability.
• Programs can use more memory than physically available, enabling larger and more complex
applications.

Drawbacks
• Virtual memory can be slower than RAM, which can cause the computer to slow down. This
is called thrashing.
• Virtual memory can take up storage space that could be used for other purposes
Motherboard
 Motherboard(Cont..)
• A computer is an electronic device that processes the data with respect to the user’s
requirements using IO devices.
• The data processing takes place in a processor, an important component.
• The processor is situated in a hardware circuit board called the motherboard or printed
circuit board (PCB).
• It distributes electricity and facilitates communication between and to the central processing
unit (CPU), random access memory (RAM), and any other component of the computer’s
hardware.
• A computer motherboard may be found inside a computer casing, which is the point of
connection for most of the computer’s elements and peripherals.
TYPES OF MOTHERBOARD
Advanced Technology (AT) motherboard

• Due to their larger physical dimensions (which can be measured in hundredths of

millimeters),these motherboards do not work properly with computers.

• The power connections on these motherboards are in the form of sockets and
plugs with six prongs each.

• Due to the difficulty in recognizing these power connections, users often have
issues while trying to connect and operate them.
Standard ATX motherboard

• ATX is an enhanced version of the AT motherboard that Intel created in the

1990s. Its name means “advanced technology extended,” and its initials stand for
“advanced technology.”

• Unlike AT, it is much more compact and enables the associated components to be
interchanged.

• Standard ATX motherboards are ideal for users who need more expansion
options, such as adding multiple GPUs, additional storage devices, and PCIe
cards for heavy workloads like gaming or video editing.
Micro ATX motherboard

• The length and width of these motherboards, measured in millimeters, are

also 244 mm. This motherboard has fewer ports and slots than the
Standard ATX board.

• Users who do not want excessive connections and subsequent upgrades, like
adding more RAM, an extra GPU, or other Peripheral Component
Interconnect (PCI) cards, are better suited for this kind of motherboard than
others.
eXtended ATX motherboard

• The dimensions of this motherboard are 344 millimeters by 330 millimeters

(dimensions will differ with different manufacturers). This motherboard
supports a single or a twin CPU configuration and has up to eight RAM slots.

• Additionally, it has a higher number of PCIe (where e is for Express) and PCI
slots, which may be used to add PCI cards for a wide range of applications.

• EATX motherboards are best suited for professionals running resource-heavy

applications, such as 3D rendering, AI modeling, or server management.
Flex ATX motherboard

• Flex ATX is a modification of mini ATX that Intel created between 1999-2000. It
is a motherboard standard.

• They were designed to occupy a minimal amount of space and had a minimal
price tag.
Low-Profile EXtended (LPX) motherboard

• This has two significant enhancements. The first change was that the output and
input ports were moved to the rear of the device, and the second change was the
addition of a riser card, which enables the device to have additional slots and
makes it easier to attach components.

• The primary drawback of this board is that it does not have any accelerated
graphic port (AGP) ports, resulting in a connection to PCI that is made
directly.
BTX motherboard

•Balanced technology extended, abbreviated as BTX, is a

strategy developed to fulfill the requirements of emerging
technologies, which call for increased power consumption
and, as a result, emanate more heat.
Mini ITX motherboard

• It is important to note that there is no regular-sized version of the information technology

extended (ITX) motherboard.

• Due to its reduced power consumption and quicker cooling capabilities, it is primarily used in
computers with a small form factor (SFF).

• Given that it has a relatively low level of fan noise, the motherboard is the one that is
recommended the most for use in home theater systems because it will enhance the
overall performance of the system.
Mini STX motherboard

• The name “Intel 5×5” was initially given to the motherboard now known as the
Mini-STX, which stands for mini socket technology extended.

• Although it was introduced in 2015, the motherboard has dimensions of 147

millimeters by 140 millimeters. This converts to a length of 5.8 inches and a
width of 5.5 inches; hence, the 5×5 name is rather misleading.
 How does a motherboard work?
• When you turn your computer on, the power supply transfers electricity to the
motherboard to be used by the computer.
• Data is transported between the chipset components via data buses and
travels between the southbridge and northbridge sections.
• The data connections to the CPU, RAM, or PCIe are made through the
northbridge component.
• The data connection to the basic input/output system (BIOS), the universal
serial bus (USB), the serial advanced technology attachment (SATA), and the
PCI bus are managed by the southbridge component.
• The information sent over buses will be encoded using a programming language
(1 and 0).
• When a signal is sent to a motherboard from one of its components, the
motherboard will process it and translate it into a language the other component
can comprehend.
• On most of today’s computing systems, all of this will occur in a split second,
and there is almost no delay between the input and the output.
Key Components of a Motherboard
Mouse and keyboard connectors

• Computer motherboards must have two separate connectors that allow users to connect
their external mouse and keyboard.
• There are two keyboard and mouse connectors, the PS/2 and the USB. The personal
system/2(PS/2) port is a mini-DIN plug that contains six pins and connects the mouse or
keyboard to an IBM-compatible computer. Other computers use the USB port to connect the
mouse or keyboard.
Universal serial bus (USB)

• The USB is a computer interface that connects computers to other devices, such as phones.
• The USB port is a significant part of a motherboard that allows users to connect external
peripheral
devices such as printers, scanners, and pen drives to the computer.
• It enables users to transfer data between the device and the computer.
• Types of USB include USB-A, USB-B, USB-mini, micro-USB, USB-C, and USB-3.
CPU

• The central processing unit (CPU) is commonly referred to as the computer’s brain. The
CPU controls all the functions of a computer.
• CPUs are available in different form factors, each requiring a particular slot on the
motherboard.
• A CPU can contain one or multiple cores. A CPU with a single core can only perform a single
task at a time, while those with multiple cores can execute multiple tasks simultaneously.
RAM memory

• RAM slots connect the random access memory (RAM) to the motherboard. RAM allows
the computer to temporarily store files and programs that are being accessed by the CPU.
• Computers with more RAM capacity can hold and process larger files and programs, thus
enhancing performance.
• A computer usually has two RAM slots. However, some computers have up to four RAM slots
in the motherboard to increase the available memory.
Basic input/output (BIOS) system

• The BIOS contains the firmware of the motherboard. It consists of instructions about what to
do when the computer is turned on.
• It is responsible for initializing the hardware components and loading the computer’s operating
system.
• The BIOS also allows the computer’s operating system to interact and respond with input
and output devices such as a mouse and keyboard.
• In some motherboards, the legacy BIOS is replaced by the modern extensible firmware
interface
(EFI) or the unified extensible firmware interface (UEFI).
Chipsets
• The chipsets of a computer control how the computer hardware and buses interact with
the CPU and other components.
• Chipsets also determine the amount of memory users can add to a motherboard and the
type of connectors that the motherboard can have.
• The first type of chipset is the northbridge chipset. The northbridge manages the speed at
which the CPU communicates with the components.
• It also controls the processor, the AGP video slot, and the RAM.
• The second type of chipset is the southbridge chipset. The southbridge chipset controls
the rest of the components connected to the computer, including communication between
the processor and expansion ports such as USB ports and sound cards.
Cooling fans

• The heat generated when electric current flows between components can make a computer run
slowly.
• If too much heat is left to build up unchecked, it could damage computer components. Thus, a
computer performs better when kept cool.
• Cooling fans increase the airflow, which helps to remove heat from the computer. Some elements, such
as video adapter cards, have dedicated cooling fans.
Adapter cards and expansion slots

• Adapter cards are integrated into the motherboard to enhance a computer’s functionality.
Examples include sound and video adapters.
• The expansion slots allow users to install compatible adapter cards.
• Examples of expansion slots include the peripheral component interconnect (PCI) slot, the
AGP slot (which enables the insertion of video cards), the PCI Express serial bus slot, and the
PCI- extended slot.
CMOS battery

• The CMOS battery is a small round battery found on the motherboard of every computer.
• It provides power to the complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) chip. The CMOS
chip stores BIOS information and computer settings, even when powered down.
• The CMOS battery allows users to skip resetting BIOS configurations, such as boot order,
date, and time settings, each time they power on their computer.
Storage devices

• Storage drives store data permanently or retrieve data from a media disk. The storage devices
can either be installed in the computer as hard drives or in removable drives that can connect to
the computer through the USB ports.
• Hard disk drives(HDD) or solid-state drives (SSD) are computers’ primary storage
drives. Computers with SSDs execute tasks much faster and perform better than HDDs.
• Users can also use optical drives such as compact discs to store information.
Power connector

• The power connector provides an electric supply to the computer to function as intended.
• The power supply connector has 20 pins and converts 110-V AC power into +/-12-Volt, +/-5-
Volt,
and 3.3-Volt direct current (DC) power.
Northbridge
• It is an integrated circuit within the chipset on the motherboard that is
responsible for providing a connection between AGP, CPU interface, and
memory.
• Unlike southbridge, it is directly connected to the CPU interface, AGP, and
memory. The primary task of northbridge is to provide communication between
CPU and external devices via buses.
Southbridge
• It is an integrated circuit on the motherboard that is designed for a single function
and manufactured as a single unit. It is important for I/O controller, hard drive
controller, and integrated hardware.
Integrated circuit
• It is a small chip that is also known as a monolithic integrated circuit, microchip, or a bare chip.
• It includes multiple circuits, pathways, logic gates, and other components that perform together
for
a specific function.
PCI slot
• It allows users to add internal components to a desktop computer.
• In 1992, it was designed and introduced by Intel.
• It stands for Peripheral Component Interface that is used to connect the addition of PCI
devices
such as modems, sound cards, video cards, and network hardware cards.
Computer Peripherals - I/O devices
What Does Peripheral Device Mean?

• A Peripheral Device is defined as a device that provides input/output functions

for a computer and serves as an auxiliary computer device without computing-
intensive functionality.

• A peripheral device is also called a peripheral, computer peripheral, input-

output device, or I/O device.
Classification of Peripheral devices

• 1. Input Devices:
• 2. Output Devices:
• 3. Storage Devices:
• 4. Communication Devices:
Input Devices
Keyboard

• The keyboard is the most basic and very commonly used input device which helps to input data
to the computer.
• The layout of the buttons in a normally used keyboard is similar to the traditional typewriter,
but there are a few additional keys provided by different manufacturers for performing
additional functions.
• Normally available keyboards in the market were of two sizes 84 keys and 101/102 keys, but
now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also possible for Windows and Internet.
Mouse(Pointing Device)

• It is the most commonly used pointing device.

• It is a very famous cursor-control device and the earlier versions of it were built over a small
palm- size box with a round ball at its base, which tracks the movement of the mouse and feeds
digital signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
• Currently, the mouse has a sensor at the bottom to detect cursor position.
• Basic versions if it has two buttons called the left and the right-click button and a wheel is
present between the buttons to provide a scroll function.
• The movement of the mouse on a flat surface is used to control the position of the cursor on
the display, but it cannot be used to feed text into the system directly.
Joystick

• Just like a mouse, a Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to travel the cursor position
on a display.
• It is a perpendicular stick having a spherical ball at both lower and upper ends.
• The spherical ball connected at the circuit having sensors moves in a socket. The
joystick controller can be traversed in all directions.
• The functionality of the joystick is just like a mouse. Its applications are generally in
Computer- Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen

• Just like a pen, a light pen is a digital pointing device. This device is used to select an
item displayed in the menu or to draw anything on the display.
• It contains a photocell and an optical sensor placed in a small tube at the tip.
• When the light pen tip is traveled on the display, its photocell sensing element calculates the
screen location and sends the digital signal to the CPU.
Track Ball

• The trackball is another type of input device similar to the mouse.

• It is most helpful with a notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse.
• It consists of a ball on the top which is half inserted and connected to the sensors. By moving
fingers on the ball, the cursor can be moved.
• Because the whole device is not moved to move the cursor, a trackball requires less space as
compared to the mouse. This device comes in different shapes like a ball, a square, or a
button.
Scanner

• A scanner is another input device, which works very much like a photocopy machine.
• It can be used when some information on paper is to be transferred to the hard disk of the
computer
in digital format for further manipulation.
• The scanner captures high-resolution images from the source which are then converted into
a digital format that can be saved on the disk and shared digitally.
• These digital images can be edited before they are printed.
Digitizer

• A digitizer is also an input device that is used to convert analog information into digital form.
• Using a digitizer, the signal from the television or camera can be transformed into a series of
numbers that could be saved in a computer hard drive.
• They can be helpful with the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera has been
pointed at.
• Digitizer is also called Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it transforms graphics and pictorial
data into binary inputs to the system.
Microphone

• A microphone or mic is a very common input device used to input sound that is then stored in
a digital form.
• Nowadays microphones are used in almost every industry and devices related to sound
recording
or transmission.
• The microphone is used for different applications like adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music, voice calling and recording, video conferencing, and more.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)

• It is an input device that is used to read a printed text similar to the scanner, but the method
of reading and the type of output generated is different.
• The format to be fed to the OCR is predefined and can’t be used as an ordinary scanner.
• OCR, unlike a scanner, scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a
machine-readable digital code instead of creating high-resolution images, and stores the text on
the system memory.
Bar Code Readers

• Bar Code Reader is an input device used to read special format barcoded data (data in the form
of light and dark lines).
• Barcoded data is commonly used to create price tags, in labeling goods, numbering the books,
etc.
• A flash of light from the device strikes the surface of the object and reflects the sensors
present behind the source of light to collect the input.
• Bar Code Reader can only scan a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which
is then transferred to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.
Webcam

• A Webcam is a camera that is combined with a computer. Unlike a digital camera, they
cannot function independently and should be connected to the computer/laptop for operation.
• It functions as an input device that can take pictures and is mostly used for video streaming
and
video conferencing or chatting.
Output Devices
Output Devices
• A piece of hardware/equipment that presents the result of the entered input, once it is processed,
is called an output device.
• Several output devices display output in various ways such as images, text, hard copies, and
audio/video.
Monitors

• Monitors or Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the primary output devices of a computer system.
• It generates images from tiny dots, termed pixels that are arranged in a well-defined
rectangular
form.
• The depth and sharpness of the image depend upon the number and size of the pixels.
Printers

• A printer is a very commonly practiced output device, which is used to print information on paper.
• Printers are usually connected to a computer and are used to print documents and images created
in
word processors, spreadsheets, and other programs.
• A printer receives digital images and text from a computer
• A driver or software converts the file into a language the printer can understand
• The printer uses a series of dots to recreate the image or text on the page
• Types of printers :
1. Inkjet: Sprays ink from a cartridge onto the paper
2. Laser: Uses a laser beam to attract toner to the paper
3. Dot matrix: An impact printer that strikes the paper a line at a time etc
Projector

• A projector is an optical output device that can take images produced by a computer and project
or present them onto a screen or surface called a projector.
• Projectors are most commonly used in offices, classrooms, auditoriums, theatres to watch
presentations, videos, or pictures generated from a computer or laptop.
• In the older version of projectors, images were created by shining the light through a small
transparent lens on the projector; however, the new version of projectors uses laser technology
for the same.
Speakers

• Computer speakers are the most popular output devices used with a computer to listen to
sound.
• These speakers receive audio as input either in analog or digital form and generate sound as an
output.
• With the advancement of technology, speakers are now available with wireless and
BlueTooth facilities as well.
Headphones

• The headphones or earphones or headsets are hardware output tools that are either plugged into
the computer or can be wireless.
• They offer the same function as a speaker, the only difference is the frequency of sound.
• With speakers, the sound can be detected over a larger distance while utilizing headphones,
the sound is only audible to the individual using them.
Plotters

• A plotter is a computer output device that is primarily used to produce high-quality

drawings, designs, and graphics.
• It is different from other printers as it uses one or more pens or markers to draw continuous
lines
on paper or other suitable materials, rather than using dots or pixels to create images.
Storage devices- HDDs, SSDs, Optical drives
What is a storage device?

• Storage devices are the computer hardware used to remember/store data.

• There are many types of storage devices, each with their own benefits and
drawbacks.
1.Hard Disk
2.SSD
3.Optical Devices etc
Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

• Hard disk drives are non-volatile magnetic storage devices capable of

remembering vast amounts of data.
• An electromagnet in the read/write head charges the disk’s surface with either a
positive or negative charge, this is how binary 1 or 0 is represented.
• The read/write head is then capable of detecting the magnetic charges left on the
disk’s surface, this is how data is read.
Hard Disk Drive(Cont..)
• A magnetic disk consists of one or more flat, circular platters made of glass,
metal, or plastic, and coated with a magnetic substance.
• Particles within a small area of the magnetic substance can be polarized
magnetically in one of two directions with an electromagnet; an electromagnet
can also detect the direction of polarization previously recorded.
• Thus, magnetic polarization can be used to distinguish 1s and 0s. Electromagnetic
read/write heads are used for this purpose.
• A drive motor rotates the disk platter(s) about its central axis. On most drives, the
motor rotates the disk at a fixed speed.
• An arm has the read/write head mounted at the end.
Hard Disk Drive(Cont..)
• The arm makes it possible for the head to move radially in and out across the
surface of the disk.
• A head motor controls precisely the position of the arm on the disk.
• Most hard disk drives contain several platters, all mounted on the same axis,
with heads on each surface of each platter.
• The heads move in tandem, so they are positioned over the same point on each
surface.
• Except for the top and bottom, each arm contains two read/write heads, which
service the surfaces of two adjoining platters.
• With the head in a particular position, it traces out a circle on the disk surface as
the disk rotates; this circle is known as a track.
 Hard Disk Drive(Cont..)
• The heads on each surface all line up, the set of tracks for all the surfaces form a cylinder. Each
track contains one or more blocks of data.

• On most disks the surface of the disk platter is divided into equally sized pie shape
segments,known as sectors, although the disks on some large computers divide up the track
differently.

• Each sector on a single track contains one block of data, typically 512 bytes, which represents the
smallest unit that can be independently read or written.

• Regardless of the track, the same angle is swept out when a sector is accessed; thus, the transfer
time is kept constant with the motor rotating at a fixed speed. This technique is called CAV,
for constant angular velocity. CAV has the advantage of simplicity and fast access.
Hard Disk Drive(Cont..)
• If there were more bits packed into the outer tracks, the data would be transferred
faster at the edge than at the center.
• The motor speed would be adjusted such that the speed along the track would be
constant regardless of the position of the head. This approach is called CLV, for
constant linear velocity. The capacity of a CLV disk with the same diameter and
bit density is approximately double that of an equivalent CAV disk.
• CLV technology is commonly used with CDs and DVDs, the design makes it
more difficult to access individual blocks of data rapidly, so it is rarely used for
hard disks.
Hard Disk Drive(Cont..)
• Modern disk drives divide the disk into a number of zones, typically
sixteen.
Hard Disk Drive(Cont..)
• The largest number of sectors will be in the zone containing the outermost
cylinders, Instead of adjusting the motor speed, the disk controller buffers the
data rate so that the data rate to the I/O interface is constant, despite the
variable data rate between the controller and the disk.
• Different vendors call this technique multiple zone recording, zone bit
recording (ZBR), or zone-CAV recording (Z-CAV).
• The platter on a hard disk drive is made of a rigid material and is precisely
mounted.
• A typical hard disk rotates at 5400 revolutions per minute (rpm), 7200 rpm, or
even 10,800 rpm.
Hard Disk Drive(Cont..)
• The disk surface is divided into concentric circles (tracks) and sectors
(wedges). Dividing the surface in this way provides physical addresses to
remember where data is saved.
• The point to be noted here is that the outer tracks are bigger than the inner
tracks but they contain the same number of sectors and have equal storage
capacity.
• Typical HDD capacities are measured in Terabytes (TB).
• The read-write (R-W) head moves over the rotating hard disk.
• It is this Read-Write head that performs all the read and write operations on
the disk and hence, the position of the R-W head is a major concern.
Hard Disk Drive(Cont..)
Hard Disk Drive(Cont..)
1.Seek time – The time taken by the R-W head to reach the desired track from its
current position.
2.Rotational latency – Time taken by the sector to come under the R-W head.
3.Data transfer time – Time taken to transfer the required amount of data. It
depends upon the rotational speed.
4.Controller time – The processing time taken by the controller.
5.Average Access time – seek time + Average Rotational latency + data transfer
time + controller time.
Hard Disk Drive(Cont..)
Hard Disk Drive(Cont..)

• For a typical hard disk rotating at 3600 revolutions per minute, or 60 revolutions per second,
the average latency is,
Hard Disk Drive(Cont..)

• If the hard drive in the example contains 30 sectors per track, the transfer time for a single
block would be
Disk Arrays
• It is common to group multiple disks together. Such a grouping of two or more disk drives is
called a disk array or a drive array.
• A disk array can be used to reduce overall data access time by sharing the data among multiple
disks and also to increase system reliability by providing storage redundancy.
• One useful type of disk array is known as RAID, which stands for Redundant Array
of Inexpensive Disks.
• There are two standard methods of implementing a disk array. One is known as a
mirrored array,
and the other as a striped array.
• A mirrored array consists of two or more disk drives. In a mirrored array, each disk stores
exactly the same data.
• During reads, alternate blocks of the data are read from different drives, then combined
to reassemble the original data.
Disk Arrays(Cont..)
• The access time for a multiblock read is reduced approximately by a factor equal to the number
of disk drives in the array.
• If a read failure occurs in one of the drives, the data can be read from another drive and the bad
block marked to prevent future use of that block, increasing system reliability.
• When three drives are used, errors that are not detected by normal read failures can be found
using a method known as majority logic.
• In a striped array, a file segment to be stored is divided into blocks. Different blocks are then
written simultaneously to different disks.
• This effectively multiplies the throughput rate by the number of data disks in the array.
• A striped array requires a minimum of three disk drives; in the simplest configuration, one
disk drive is reserved for error checking.
Disk Arrays(Cont..)
• As the write operation is taking place, the system creates a block of parity words from each
group of data blocks and stores that on the reserved disk.
• During read operations, the parity data is used to check the original data.
• There are five well-defined RAID standards, labeled RAID 1 through RAID 5.
• RAID 1 is a mirrored array RAID 1 provides protection by storing everything at least twice,
but offers a substantial performance gain, particularly under heavy data read usage.
• RAIDs 2, 3, and 4 are arrays that are striped in different ways. Each uses a separate disk for
error
checking.
• RAID 0 is not a true RAID, because it provides no redundancy and no inherent error checking.
Solid-State Drive (SSD)
• SSD is a non-volatile storage device, which stands for Solid State Drive

• Solid-state drive (SSD) is a solid-state storage device that uses

integrated circuit assemblies as memory to store data.

• There are no moving mechanical components in SSD.

• This makes them different from conventional electromechanical drives

such as Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) or floppy disks, which contain
movable read/write heads and spinning disks.
Solid-State Drive (Cont..)

• It is a type of non-volatile memory that retains data even when power is lost.

• SSDs may be constructed from random-access memory (RAM) for

applications requiring fast access but not necessarily data persistence after
power loss.
Features of SSD

• Start-up Time: SSDs do not use any mechanical component hence it takes
almost negligible startup time.
• Random Access Times: Accessing data directly from the Flash memory
creates a lag-free experience for its users.
• Data transfer rates: Higher Data Transfer rates of about 100-600 Mb/sec.
• Noise: As they have no mechanical part they create zero noise.
• Reliability: SSDs are reliable as there are no moving parts that can wear
over time.
• Security features: SSDs offer advanced security features like hardware
encryption and secure erase functions to protect data from unauthorized
access.
 Benefits of using SSD

• Faster Read/Write Speeds: SSDs offer significantly faster read and write speeds
than traditional hard disk drives (HDDs), which use spinning disks and mechanical
read/write heads. This translates into faster boot times, application loading times, and
overall system performance.
• Lower Power Consumption: SSDs consume less power than HDDs, making them
ideal for use in laptops, tablets, and other mobile devices that rely on battery power.
• No Moving Parts: Unlike Hard Disk Drives, which have spinning disks and
mechanical read/write heads, SSDs have no moving parts. This makes them more
resistant to shock and vibration, and less prone to mechanical failure.
• Higher Reliability: Because SSDs have no moving parts, they are generally more
reliable than HDDs, which are subject to mechanical wear and tear. SSDs also have a
lower rate of data loss due to read/write errors.
• Lower Noise and Heat Output: SSDs generate less noise and heat than HDDs,
making them ideal for use in quiet environments or systems with limited cooling
Disadvantages of SSD

• Cost: SSDs are more expensive than regular hard drives.

• Limited Lifespan: Each memory cell in an SSD has a limited number of
write cycles before it degrades.
• Storage choices: Because of the expense, SSDs are often sold in smaller
sizes.
 Difference Between SSD and HDD
Parameter HDD SSD
SSDs are comparatively less
HDDs are more reliable for reliable for long-term storage
Long term storage long-term storage. due to data leaks that can
occur if kept unpowered for
more than a year.

The data accessing speed The data accessing speed is

Access speed is slower as compared to much higher as compared to
SSD. HDD.
The performance suffers The performance does not
Performance because of fragmentation. suffer because of
fragmentation.
SSDs are suitable for
HDDs are suitable for •Fast data retrieval