Quality

Improvement
Chapter 7- Additional
SPC Techniques for
Variables
PowerPoint
PowerPoint presentation
presentation to
to
accompany
accompany
Besterfield,
Besterfield, Quality
Quality Improvement,
Improvement,
9e
9e
 Outline
Continuous and Batch Processes
Multi-Vari Chart
Short-Run SPC
Gauge Control

2
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Learning Objectives
When you have completed this chapter
you should be able to:
Explainthe difference between discrete,
continuous, and batch processes.
Construct and use a group chart.
Construct a multi-vari chart.
Calculate the central line and control limits
of a specification chart

3
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Learning Objectives-
Continued
When you have completed this chapter
you should be able to:
 Calculate the central line and central limits for a

Zbar & W and Z & MW charts

 Explain how to use precontrol for set up
and run activities.
Determine a PTPC chart
 Understand the concept of GR&R

4
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Continuous Processes

 Usually operates 24 hrs a day, 7 days a

week, stops for scheduled maintenance.
 Often involves a conveyor or moving
assembly line
 Associated with product involving
hazardous materials

5
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Continuous Processes
 Examples
 Paper-making machines
 Oil refineries
 Soft drinks (continuous then discrete)
 Control charts for each value (multiple
stream output)

6
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Continuous Processes
It is extremely important to have
knowledge about the process and objectives
for the control chart. When it is difficult to
obtain samples from a location, sensors
may be helpful to collect data, compare to
control limits, and automatically control the
process.

7
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Continuous & Batch
Processing
A good example of a continuous process is
depicted by the paper-making process. They
operate 24 hrs a day, 7 days a week, and stop
only for scheduled maintenance or
emergencies.Observed values are taken in
the machine direction(md) or cross-machine
direction (cd).

8
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Continuous & Batch
Processing
If the flow of pulp is controlled by 48 valves,
then 48 md control charts would be required
to control each valve.In this case it is very
important for the practitioner to be
knowledgeable about the process and have
definite objectives for the control chart.

9
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 FIGURE 7-1 Paper-Making Machine

10
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 FIGURE 7-2 Paper Web and Observed Valves for md and cd Control Charts

11
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Group Chart
 Eliminates the need for a chart for each
stream; however, it does not eliminate the
need for measurements at each stream
 Uses the same methodology outlined in
Chapter 6, 25 subgroups for each stream.
 Use lowest and highest averages for Xbar
chart and the highest range for the R
chart. Each stream has a number.

12
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Group Chart
 Any out-of-control situation would call for
corrective actions
 We have the out-of-control situation when
the same value streams gives the highest or
lowest value r times in succession

13
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Group Chart
 See Table 7-1 for the r values
 The technique is applicable to machines, test
equipment, operators, or suppliers as long
as:
 Each stream has the same target
 Same variation
 Variation is as close to normal as required
by conventional Xbar and R charts.

14
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Batch Processes
 Paint, soft drinks, bread, soup, etc
 SPC of batches has two forms:

1. Within batch variation

 Only one observed value of a particular
quality characteristic can be obtained
 They need to be obtained at different
locations within the batch
2. Between-batch variation
 Does not always occur
15
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 FIGURE 7-3 Example of Multiple Streams: A Four-Spindle Filling Machine

16
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Batch Chart
 It is not a control chart, it might
be more appropriately called a
run chart
 Can provide information for
effective quality improvement

17
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Batch Chart

Figure 7-4 Batch chart for different batches with differet specifications

18
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Multi-Vari Chart
 For detecting different types of variation
that are found in products and services
 The chart will lead to a problem solution
much faster than other techniques
 Shows the different types of variation
within a single unit or service (within unit
variation, unit-to-unit variation, time-to-
time variation)

19
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Multi-Vari Chart
Procedure:

1.Select 3 to 5 consecutive units

2.Plot
the highest and lowest
observed value of each piece
3.Draw a line between them
4.Repeat the process

20
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 21
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Short-Run SPC
Specification Chart
 Used for small lot sizes – common in JIT
 Gives some measure of control and a
method of quality improvement
 Central line and control limits are
established using the specification
σ = (USL-LSL) / 6 Cp

22
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Specification Chart

USL  LSL
Cp 
6
USL  LSL

6C p
URLX  X 0  A
LRLX  X 0  A
R0 d 2
URLR D2
LRLR D1
These limits represent what we would
like the process to do. 23
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 FIGURE 7-7 Comparison for Different Capabilities for Specification Chart
24
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Deviation Chart
Deviation Chart
 The plotted points are the deviation from
the target
 Even though the target changes, the
central line for the X chart is always zero
 Because the target changes, we require
the variance (S2) of the different targets or
nominal to be identical. This requirement is
verified by ANOVA or R Prbyocess
using
1.3
Quality Improvement, 9e
R Total 25
© 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Deviation Chart
Advantages:

1. Provide the opportunity to convey

enhanced information
2. Can plot different quality
characteristics on the same chart

26
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Deviation Chart

Figure 7-8 Deviation chart for individuals (X’s) and moving range(R’s)
27
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Short-Run SPC
Target X andR values are determinedby:
1)Prior control charts
2)HistoricalData

( a) Target X =
 X
m
d2
( b) TargetR =s( )
c4
3) Prior experience onsimilar partnumbers
4) Specifications

28
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 ZBar and W Charts
Very good for short runs
Different quality characteristics such
as length, width etc. may be plotted
on the same chart
Can be used to monitor an operator’s
daily performance
Can track an entire part history
Subgroup size MUST remain constant
Calculations are more involved

29
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Zbar and W Charts
Those are very good for short runs

R X - Target X
W= Z=
TargetR TargetR
CLW =1.00 CLz =0.00
UCLW =D4 UCLz =+A2
LCLW =D3 LCLz =-A2

30
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Zbar and W Charts

Figure 7-10 Zbar chart

31
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Z and MW Charts
MW is the moving range of the Z values

Z =( X - Target X ) /Target R
MWi+1 = Z i - Z i+1

CLz =0.0 CLMW =1.00

UCLz =+2.66 UCLMW =3.27
UCLz =-2.66 UCLMW =0

MW chart uses the absolute value

Individuals values are plotted

32
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 FIGURE 7-11 Central Lines and Control Limits for Z and MW Charts
33
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Precontrol
 Was developed originally with
machining operations in mind.
 Operator faced with the problem of
first setting up the machine and
then deciding if the machine is
ready for full production.
 Small lot sizes with each piece
taking a long time to produce.

34
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Precontrol
 Well suited for machining
operations where one can devise
simple feedback algorithms to bring
the process back on target.
 Requires operators who are very
knowledgeable about the process.

35
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Precontrol
 Steps for the construction:
Be sure that the process capability
is less than the specifications.
PC lines are established to divide
the tolerance into five zones (Figure
7-12)
 The PC procedure has two stages:
Start-up
Run

36
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Precontrol

Normal Distribution, Cp and Cpk = 1.00 or greater. Specifications

(Print Tolerance) at 6σ

37
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Precontrol
PRE-Control Rules:
1.Start up Process
 5 consecutive units in green zone –
o.k. to run
 1 yellow, restart counting
 2 yellow in a row, adjust the process
 1 red, adjust the process
 < 5 signifies:
 Process capability << 1
 PRE-control is not appropriate
38
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 FIGURE 7-13 Precontrol Procedure

39
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Precontrol
Precontrol Rules cont’d:
2. Sampling
n = 2 units
Sample six pairs between adjustments.
See Table 7-2 stoppages
1 unit in red zone
2 consecutive units in opposite yellow
zone
2 consecutive yellow zones , process
adjusted and procedure goes back to start up40
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 FIGURE 7-16 Precontrol Chart

41
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 42
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Precontrol
 Precontrol can be used for single
specifications
 Precontrol can be used for
attributes
 Precontrol is also used for visual
characteristics by assigning visual
standards for the Precontrol lines

43
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 44
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 % Tolerance Precontrol Chart
 Z Charts: Ability to accommodate
more than one quality characteristic
 We can combine Z chart into one
technique by the use of percent
tolerance precontrol chart (PTPCC)
 Target or nominal
 X*= (X – nominal) / [(USL-LSL)/2]
 A negative value indicates that the
observed value is below the nominal

45
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 46
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Gage Repeatability and
Reproducibility
Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility (GR&R)
studies provide information on measurement
system performance by analyzing measurement
error from various sources.
Typically the sources of variation are divided into
three categories: part-to-part, operator or
appraiser, and gage or equipment. In some
instances another category, interaction between
parts and operators, can provide additional
information about the gaging process.

47
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Gauge Control
 All data have measurement errors
 An observed value has two
components
Observed value = True value +
Measurement error
 Total Variation = Production Variation
(process) + Measurement Variation
Measurement Variation = Repeatability
(equipment variation) + Reproducibility
(inspector or appraiser variation)
48
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Gauge R&R
METHODS:
In instances such as automated measuring
processes, the GR&R studies are not affected
by operator influence. These data then are
analyzed using a calculation method.

49
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Gauge R&R
1. Gage has to be calibrated using
standards
2. Data is collected
 2 or 3 appraisers
 2 or 3 trials
 10 parts
 Part characteristic is measured in a
random order

50
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Gauge Control
 The preferred method is to use
ANOVA, which is discussed in
Chapter 13
 A P/T is determined which
compares the measurement
variation (P) to the total variation
(T)

51
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Gage Control
Guidelines for acceptance of GR&R using the P/T
ratio:
Under 0.10 (10%) error
 Gage system is satisfactory

0.10 to 0.30 (10% to 30%) error

 May be acceptable based upon importance of
application, cost of gage, cost of repairs, etc.
Over 0.30 (30%) error
 Gage system is not satisfactory. Identify the
causes and take corrective action
Quality Improvement, 9e
52
© 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Evaluation
If repeatability is large compared to
reproducibility:
1. The gage needs maintenance
2. The gage should be redesigned to be
more rigid
3. The clamping or location for gaging needs
to be improved
4. There is excessive within-part variation

53
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Evaluation
If reproducibility is large
compared to repeatability:
1. The operator needs to be better trained
in how to use and read the gage
2. Calibrations on the gage are not legible
3. A fixture may be needed to help the
operator use the gage consistently

54
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
 Computer Program
 EXCEL program files on the website
solve for Zbar & W charts and PTPC
chart.

55
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved