Chapter 3:

Datalink layer
• Functionalities:
• Encapsulation, addressing
• Error detection and
correction
• Flow control
• Media access control

1
Overview of Data link layer

2
 Network nodes and links

“link”
• Network nodes:
• PCs, Laptop, Routers,
Server…
• Links:
• Communication chanel
between adjacent
nodes
• Wired link: Ethernet
LAN, ADSL, fiber
optic…
• Wireless link: Wi-fi,
FSO, Satellite,…
• Datalink layer
responsibility:
• Transmit data between
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adjacent elements. 3
Datalink layer in Layer architecture

Application Media independent

sub-layer
Transport

Network LLC
(Logical Link Control)
Data-link
MAC
Physical (Media Access Control) Media dependent sub-
layer

802.2 LLC

802.3 802.4 802.5 802.11 ….. 802.16

Ethernet Token Bus Token Ring Wi-Fi Wi-Max

IEEE 802.x series

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Functionalities

Framing Flow control

Media Access Control

Addressing Error control

Datalink layer

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Functionalities

• Framing:
• Sender: place the network layer packet into
the frame, add header, tail
• Receiver: Remove the header, tail for
extracting the network packet.

• Addressing:
• Physical address in the header of the frame
for identifying the source and the destination.

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Framing-Example of HDLC frame

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Functionalities (2)

• Media access control:

• If the nodes in the network share common
media, a Media access control protocol is
required.
• Flow control:
• Control the transmission speed of the sender
so that the receiver does not overloaded.
• Error control:
• Detect and correct errors
• e.g. parity check, checksum, CRC check

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Error control
• Error detection
• Error correction

9
Principle of error detection

EDC= Error Detection Code (redundancy)

EDC is added to data before sending to the destination.

Data Data
Y
Error
All bit in Data’
OK?
N

Data EDC Data’ EDC’

Link with bit errors

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Principal of error detection

• Condition for all error detection

• fedc(Dsend) != fedc (Dreceive) ∀ Dsend != Dreceive
• Space of codes (number of possible codes)
must at least equals to space of data
(number of possible data)
•  code length (bits) >= data length (bits)
• Transmission efficiency <= %50

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 Parity code

A check bit is added to the original data to ensure that the

total number of bit 1 is even (even parity code) or odd (odd
parity code)
• Single code
• Able to detect single bit error

 Two-dimension code 101011 101011

 Detect and correct single bit error 111100 101100
011101 011101
001010 001010
 Application: mainly on hardware, ex: while sending data
on PCI and SCSI bus
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 Parity code

• Sent data with Odd code:

• 01010101 Code: 1
• Case 1: Received data 01110101 Received code: 1
•  Total number of 1 : 6 even number Code does not
match with data
•  Error
• Case 2: Received data 01110100 Received code: 1
• Total number of bit 1  5 code matches with data
•  No error
• Data of m bit long space of data is 2^m 
expected to have different code for different data
 codes must be >=m bit long.

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 Checksum code

• Sender:
• Divides data into small parts of n bit
• Calculates binary sum of all parts. If there are some
overflow bit, add the overflow bit to the result.
• Alters all bits (two’s complement) to get the checksum
• Sends the checksum with data
• Receiver:
• Extracts data and checksum
• Divides data into block of n bits
• Calculates the sum as in the sender side including with
the checksum received
• If result contains at least one bit 0 error.

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 Checksum: Example

Data: 0011 0110 1000

Calculate checksum 4 bit:
0011
+ 0110
1000
Overflow
10001
bit 1
0010
Alter bit -> checksum code: 1101
Bits to send: 0011 0110 1000 1101

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 Checksum: Processing on
receiver

Bits received: 0011 0110 1000 1101

Verification:
0011
0110
+ 1000
1101
11110
Overflow
bit
1
1111  no bit error

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 CRC: Cyclic Redundancy Check

• Data is considered as a binary string: D

• We wants to generate a error code with length r
• Choose another binary string of (r+1) bit, G (Generator)
• Find a string R with length r bits such that the concatenation of D
and R is a binary number that divides G (modulo 2)
• <D, R> divides G

D D
Y
N
<D’, R’> mod G = 0 ?
<D, R> mod G = 0

D R D’ R’

Link with bit errors

17

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 CRC: How to find R
 Ex: D= 10101001
• <D, R> = D.2r XOR R  r= 3 bits
• Since <D, R> divides G then  G=1001 G
• D.2 XOR R = n.G
r

•  D.2r = n.G XOR R 10101001000 1001

(associativity) 1001 D 1011110
1110
• This means, R is the
1001
remainder of the division D.2r
by G (division modulo 2) 1110
1001
1111
1001
R= D.2r mod G 1100
1001
R=110, the string to send is
1010
10101001110 1001
110
D R
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R
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CRC under polynomial form
• 1011 > x3 +x +1
• Example of some CRC generators using in the
pratice:
• CRC-8 = x8 + x2 + x + 1
• CRC-12 = x12+x11+x3+x2+x
• CRC-16-CCITT = x16 + x12 + x5 + 1
• CRC-32 = x32 + x26 + x23 + x22 + x16 + x12 + x11 + x10 +
x8 + x7 + x5 + x4 + x2 + x + 1
• The longer G is, the more possible that CRC
detects errors.
• CRC is widely used in the practice
• Wi-fi, ATM, Ethernet…
• Operation XOR is implemented in hardware
• Capable to detect less than r+1 bits errors
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 Reaction when errors detected

• Objective: to assure that • Popular techniques:

data are received correctly • Error detection (as we seen)
even though the chanel is • Acknowledgement/
confirmation
not realiable.
• Retransmis after a clear
• Constraint confirmation that frame is
not arrived
• Data frame must be • Retransmis after timeout
correctly received
• Negligible transmission • ARQ technique: automatic
delay.
repeat request). There are 3
versions:
• Possible errors • Stop and Wait ARQ
• Whole frame loss • Go Back N ARQ
• Selective Reject ARQ
• Error frame
• Loss of error warning • Similar to techniques used in
message flow control.

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Stop-and-wait ARQ
Normal case
Sender Receiver

send pkt0 pkt0

pkt0 is OK
ACK
rcv ACK
send pkt1 pkt1
pkt1 is
NAK corrupted

rcv NAK pkt1

resend pkt1

Time
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 Stop-and-wait ARQ
Error ACK/NAK
Sender Receiver
• ACK error, resend the
previous packet
• Duplicated packets send pkt0 pkt0
problem.
pkt0 is OK
• To eliminate repeated ACK
packet: Use Seq.# rcv ACK
send pkt1 pkt1
• All packets are
assigned Seq# before pkt1 is OK
sending out. Repeated ACK
packet has identical
Seq# rcv sth corrupted! pkt1
resend pkt1 rcv pkt1
duplicate,
Time discard it
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Stop-and-wait ARQ
not using NAK
• ACK packet carries
Sender Receiver
#Seq of the packet
to be
send pkt0
pk t 0 acknowledged.
This number is
pkt0 is OK
ACK0 called
rcv ACK0
acknowledgment
pk t 1
send pkt1 number
ACK1 pkt1 is OK • An ACK with
acknowledgment
rcv ACK1 pk t 2 pkt2 is corrupted number n
send pkt2
implicitly confirms
ACK1 that all packet with
rcv ACK1 pk t 2
#seq number <
resend pkt2 =n have been well
received
Time
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Stop-and-wait ARQ: When ACK is lost

• Data packet and ACK packet may be lost

• No ACK is received at sender side
• How a sender decides to resends data or not?
• Solution:
• After sending out a packet, sender starts a timer specifying
maximum waiting time (timeout) for an ACK of the packet.
• When timeout expired sender re-sends the packet
• How long a Timeout should be?
• At least 1 RTT (Round Trip Time)
• If a packet arrives at the destination but its ACK is lost,
the packet is still resent because associated timeout
expired.
• The duplicated packets are eliminated at the receiver side
according to repeated #seq.

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ARQ with timeout

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ARQ with timeout

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Media access control

27
Connection types

• Point-to-point
• ADSL
• Telephone modem
• Leased Line….
• Broadcast
• LAN using bus topology
• Wireless LAN
• HFC:
• …
• Broadcast networks need media access
control protocol in order to avoid collision
when nodes try to send data.

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 Classification of MAC protocol
• Chanel division:
• Resources of the media is divided into small parts
(time - TDMA, frequency- FDMA, Code- CDMA)
• Distribute a part to each nodes
• Random access:
• Chanel is not divided; all nodes are allowed to
access simultaneously with collision possibility
• Need a mechanism to avoid collision
• e.g. Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA…
• Sequent access:
• Nodes can send data one after the other.
• Token Ring, Token Bus….

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Channel division

• FDMA: frequency division multiple access

• TDMA: time division multiple access
• CDMA: code division multiple access

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TDMA và FDMA

example
4 stations
FDMA

frequency

time
TDMA:

frequency

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time
31
CDMA

• Several senders can share the same frequency

on a single physical channel.
• Signals come from different senders are encoded
(multiplied) with different random code. Those
code must be orthogonal.
• Encoded signals are mixed and then transmit on
a common frequency.
• The signals are recovered at the receiver by
using finding the correlation with the same codes
as at sender side.
• CDMA shows a lot of advantages that other
technology cannot achieve. For example, the
same frequency can be used in adjacent mobile
cell without interference as if TDMA or FDMA are
used
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CDMA

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 Random access: Pure Aloha

• Aloha is used in mobile network

of 1G, 2.5G, 3G using GSM
technology .
• Pure Aloha:
• When one sender has data to send,
just sends it
• If while sending, the senders
receive data from other stations 
there is collision. All stations need
to resend their data.
• There are possibility to have
collision when retransmit.
• Problem: Sender does not check to
see if the chanel is free before
sending data
• Grey package are having overlap in
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 Random access: Slotted Aloha

• Times axe is divided into

equal slots.
• Each station sends data
only at the beginning of a
time slot.
•  Collision possibility is
reduced
• Still have collision in grey
package

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Random access: CSMA

• CSMA: Carrier Sense Multiple Access

• CSMA idea is similar to what happens in a
meeting.
• CSMA:
• The sender “Listen before talk”
• If the channel is busy, wait
• If the chanel is free, transmit
blah
blah
blah blah

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 CSMA

• CSMA: Sender listens before transmission:

• If the channel is free, send all the data
• If the channel is busy, wait.
• Why there are still collision?
• Due to propagation delay

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 Collision in CSMA

• Assume that there are 4

nodes in the channel
• The propagation of the
signal from one node to
the other requires a
certain delay.
• Ex:
• Transmissions from B and
D cause collision

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CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance)

• CSMA/CA is used WIFI standard IEEE 802.11

• If two stations discover that the channel is
busy, and both wait then it is possible that
they will try to resend data in the same time.
•  collision
• Solution CSMA/CA.
• Each station wait for a random period  reduce the
collision possibility

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CSMA/CD

• Used in Ethernet
• CSMA with Collision Detection:
• “Listen while talk”.
• A sender listen to the channel,
• If the channel is free then transmit data
• While a station transmit data, it listens to the channel. If it
detects a collision then transmits a short signal warning the
collision then stop
• Do not continue the transmission even in collision as CSMA
• If the channel is busy, wait then transmit with
probability p
• Retransmit after a random waiting time.
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Comparison between channel division and random access

• Channel division
• Efficient, treat stations equally.
• Waste of resources if one station has much
smaller data to send than the others
• Random access
• When total load is small: Efficient since each
station can use the whole chanel
• When total load is large: Collision possibility
increases.
• Token control: compromise between the two
above methods.

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Token Ring

 A “token” is passed from

T
one node to the other in
a ring topo
 Only the token holder can
transmit data (nothing
 After finishing sending to send)
data, the token need to T
be passed to next nodes.
 Some problem
 Time consuming in passing
token
 Loss of token due to some
reasons data
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Summary on Media access control mechanisms

• Channel division
• Random access
• Token
• What do you thinks about their
advantages and weaknesses ?

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 Point-to-Point
forwarding mechanism
Hub, Switch, Bridge

45
Devices of LAN

Repeater, Hub, bridge and switch

All are LAN devices with many ports
Repeater:
Repeats the bits received in one port to the
other port
One network with repeaters = one collision
domain
Repeater is a physical layer system.
Hub:
Receive the signal from one port (amplify )
and forward to the remaining ports
Do not offer services of datalink layer
Layer 1 intermediate system
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Hub

Hub=Multiple port repeater

Single collision domain

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Devices of LAN (cont.)

Bridge
More intelligent than hub
Can store and forward data (Ethernet frame)
according to MAC address.
Bridge breaks the network into two collision
domains.
Layer 2 intermediate system
Switch
More ports than bridge
Can store and forward data according
to MAC address
Receive full frame, check error, forward

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 Bridge

Two ports systems

- Forward frames from one port to the other based on MAC address
- Create two collision domains
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 Switch

• Allows multiple node pairs C’ B

sending data in the same
time 1 2
• E.g. A-to-A’ and B-to-B‘ 6 3
without collision 5 4
• Each link is an
independant collision C
domain
• Switch has a table of MAC B’ A’
addresses showing which
node connects to which port
• (MAC address of host, port
index, TTL)
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Switch: Self learning mechanism
Source: A
Dest: A’

A A A’
Switch learns the MAC
addresses of all hosts C’ B
connected to the switch
Each time switch receive 1 2
6 3
a frame, it may update the
source MAC address of the 5 4
frame and corresponding
connected port C
• if the address is not in MAC
table
B’ A’
• If the address is in the MAC
table, but the corresponding pỏt
is different to that in the table
MAC addr interface TTL
Forwarding table
A 1 60

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Switch: forwarding mechanism

When receiving a frame

1. The incoming port and MAC associated is learnt
2. Looking for outgoing port based on destination MAC and
forwarding table
3. if outgoing port is found
then {
if incomming port== outgoing port
then destroy the frame
else forward the frame to outgoing port
}
else broacast the frame

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 Source: A
Dest: A’
Ex: A A A’

C’ B

Outgoing port 1 2
unknown: Broadcast A6A’ 3
5 4
 Know A:
C
A’ A
Direct transfering
B’ A’

MAC addr interface TTL

A 1 60 Forwarding table
A’ 4 60 (empty initially)

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Connecting switches in cascade
Switches could be connected to eachother

S4

S1
S3
A S2
F
D I
B C
G H
E

 Switches in cascade use also self learning

mechanism
● A sends a frame to I, S1 learns the address of A and connected
port, broadcasts the frame to: B, C, S4
● S4: learns A from S1, broadcasts the frame to: S2, S3
● S3: learns A from S4, broadcasts the frame to: G, H, I
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A typical LAN

mail server
Connect to
outside
router web server

IP subnet

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Flow control

56
What is flow control

• Goal: Make sure that the sender does not overload the
receiver
• Why overloading?
• The receiver stores data frame in buffer.
• Receiver performs some processing before deliver data to the
upper level.
• Buffer could be full, leaving no space for receiving more frame
 some data fram must be dropped.
• Problem of errors in transmission is excluded
• All frames are transmitted to correct receiver without error
• Propagation time is small and could be ignored
• Solution
• Stop-and-wait mechanism
• Sliding window mechanism

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Stop-and-wait

• Principles
• Transmitter sends a single frame
• Receiver receives the fram, process and then
informs the transmitter that it is ready to
receives next frames by a clear
acknowledgement (ACK).
• Transmitter waits until reception of the ACK
before sending next frames.

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Stop-and-wait

transmitter receiver
Packet Packet

frame

frame

frame

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Stop-and-wait

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Stop-and-wait

• Advantage
• Simple, suitable for transmission of big
size frames
• Weakness
• When frames are small, the
transmission chanel are not used
efficiently.
• Cannot use often for big size frame
due to
• Limitation in buffer size
• Big size frame prones to bigger error
probability
• In shared medium, it is not convenient to
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Sliding window: principle
• Transmitter sends more than one frame without waiting in
order to reduce waiting time
• Transmitted frame without ACK stored in a buffer of the
transmitter.
• Frame arrives to receiver  put in buffered and get out
one by one for processing and send back ACK/NAK
• Buffer of transmitter = buffer of receiver
• Number of frames to be transmitted without ACK depends
on the size of free buffer
• When transmitter receives ACK, it realises the succesfully
transmitted frame from buffers
• Transmitter continues sending a number of frame
equivalent to the number of succesfully trasmitted
frames.

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Sliding window: principle

• Assume that A and B are two stations connected

by a full duplex media
• B has a buffer size of n frame.
• B can receives n frame without sending ACK
• Acknowledgement
• In order to keep track of ACKed frames. It is
neccessary to number frames.
• B acknowledge a frame by telling A which fram B is
waiting for (by number of frame), implicitely saying
that B receives well all other frame before that.
• One ACK frame serves for acknowledes several
frames.

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 Sliding windows: principle

Window list the frames to transmit

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Window list the frames in waiting to receive
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Sliding windows

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Sliding windows

• Frame are numbered. The maximum number

must not be smaller than the size of the
window.
• Frame are ACKed by another message with
number
• Accumulated ACK: If frame 1,2,3,4 are well
receive, just send ACK 4
• ACK with number k means all frame k-1, k-2
…already well received.

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Sliding windows

• Transmitter needs to manage some

information:
• List of frames transmitted sucessfully
• List of frames transmitted without ACK
• List of frames to be sent immediatly
• List of frames NOT to be sent immediately
• Receiver keep tracks of
• List of frames well received
• List of frames expected to receive

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Piggyback

• A and B transmit data in both sides

• When B needs to send an ACK while still
needs to send data, B attaches the ACK in
the Data frame Piggyback
• Otherwise, B can send an ACK frame
separately
• After ACK, if B sends some other data, it still
puts the ACK information in data frame.
• Sliding window is much more efficient than
Stop-and-Wait
• More complicated in management.

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 Exercices

• Given a link with rate R=100Mbps

• We need to send a file over data link layer with file size
L=100KB
• Assume that the size of a frame is: 1KB, header size is
ignored
• Round trip time (RTT) between 2 ends of the link is 3ms
• An ACK message is sent back from receiver whenever a
frame is arrived. Size of ACK message is negligible
• What is the transmission time required if using Stop-and-
wait mechanism?
• Transmission time with sliding window if the window size is
=7?
• Which size of window allow to obtain the fastest
transmission?
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Transmission time with Stop-
and-wait
transmitter receiver
Packet Packet

T transmit
frame

RTT

frame

frame

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Transmission time with Stop-and-wait

• T total= Nb.frame * (T_transmit + RTT)

• T_transmit (F) = L(Frame)/ R
• Nb. frame = L/L(frame)

• With the given parametters

• Nb. frame =100 KB/1KB =100
• T_transmit (F) = 1KB/100 Mbps
=10^3*8/10^8 =8. 10^-5 (s)=0.08 (ms)

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Transmission schema with Sliding windows

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Trasmission time with window
size 7
• T fastest= (T transmit 7 frames+ wait) *
Nb. Waiting time.
• 1 waiting= (T transmit 1 frame+ RTT) – T
transmit 7 frames
• Nb. Waiting time= Nb frame /7

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 Fastest transmission time with sliding window

• Fastest transmission time

obtained if transmitter
receives ACK of the first
W gói frame when it finishes
ACK transmitting the last frame
of the sliding window.
• Window size:W
• T transmit(W fram) >= T
transmit first frame + RTT

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Fastest transmission time with sliding window

• T transmit (W frame) = W * 1KB/R

• => (W-1)*1KB/R >= RTT
• => W >= RTT*R/1KB +1
• W>= 3ms * 100 Mbps/ 1KB + 1
• W>=38.5
• Smallest value of W = 39
• Time to transmit all data L = L/R + RTT
=8 ms +3ms =11 ms

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LAN: Local Area Network
Reading: 4.3 Computer Networks,
Tanenbaum

76
LAN topology

WLAN

Traditional bus
topo

hub, switch

Ring
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LAN Standards

IEEE 802 contains many standards for

LAN technology.
802.3: Ethernet
802.4: Token bus
802.5: Token ring
802.11 a/b/g/n: Wireless LAN (Wifi)
802.16: WiMax.

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Ethernet LAN

• Layer 2 technology for communication in LAN, invented in

1976
• Standardized in IEEE 802.3
• Ethernet LAN could have different speeds: 3 Mbps – 10 Gbps
• Ethernet: 10BaseT, 10Base2…
• Fast Ethernet: 100BaseT
• Giga Ethernet

Metcalfe’s Ethernet
sketch

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IEEE 802.3 and Ethernet Standards

Datalink & Physical Layers

Datalink= LLC + MAC
MAC: CSMA/CD in classical Ethernet
Several type of Ethernet
 Same MAC and frame structure
Different rate: 2 Mbps, 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1Gbps, 10G
bps
Different cable: Optical fiber, coaxial, twisted pair

MAC protocol
application and frame format
transport
network 100BASE-TX 100BASE-T2 100BASE-FX
link 100BASE-T4 100BASE-SX 100BASE-BX
physical

copper (twister fiber physical layer

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Classical Ethernet

Bus topology was popular in the past

All nodes share the same communication medium. Could
used a central hub for connecting nodes.
Use CSMA/CD for media access control.
Use Manchester encoding at Physical layer
Use coaxial cable
Thick Ethernet: Max segment length 500m without
converter
Thin Ethernet: Max segment length 185m without
converter

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Ref: Computer Network, Tanenbaum

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Structure of Ethernet frame

• Preamble: Marking the starting of a frame

• Address: Physical addresses of source and
destination
• 6 bytes
• Type: Uppper layer protocol (IP, Novell IPX,
AppleTalk, …)
• Checksum: Error detection code. CRC

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Switched Ethernet
Switched Ethernet (popular nowdays):
Star topology,
Use a central switch Ethernet
The switch outputs a frame only to the port linking to the
destination  independent connection for each pair of two
nodes
No collision
No media access control is needed.

switch

bus: coaxial cable

star
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Wireless LAN

84
Overview of 802.11 LAN

 Include base station =

Internet access point) and
stations with wireless
network interfaces
hub, switch
 Base station mode
hay router  Basic Service Set (BSS)
AP
 wireless hosts

BSS 1  access point (AP): base

AP station
 Ad hoc mode:
 Stations pay also the

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role of AP
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 Standards

802.11b 802.11g
Band 2.4-5 GHz Band 2.4-5 GHz
(unlicensed spectrum) Maximum speed 54
Maximum speed 11 Mbps Mbps
802.11a 802.11n: use multiple
Band 5-6 GHz antennas (MIMO)
Band 2.4-5 GHz
Maximum speed 54 Mbps
Maximum speed 200
Mbps

 Employ CSMA/CA for multiple access control

 Working in 2 modes : base-station and ad hoc
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802.11: Chanel and connection

Band is divided into 14 chanels spaced

5MHz apart. Europe uses 13 channels,
America uses 11 channels, Japan uses 14
channels.
Admin chooses a working frequency for AP
(may leave AP to choose automatically)
Station: need to connect to an AP
Scan channels, listen to initial frames
(beacon frames) containing the ID (SSID) and
MAC address of the AP
Choose one AP.

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802.11: Chanel and connection

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 Scanning mechanism: active/passive

BBS 1 BBS 2 BBS 1 BBS 2

AP 1 AP 2 AP 1 1 AP 2
1 1 2 2
2 3
3 4

H1 H1

Passive Scanning: Active Scanning:

(1) Beacon frames are sent from APs (1) H1 broacast the request to find an
(2) H1 send a connection request to AP
AP2 (2) APs reply with their information
(3) AP2 accepts the request (3) H1 send a connection request to
AP2
(4) AP2 accepts the requests

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IEEE 802.11: Multiple access
control

• 802.11: CSMA
• 802.11: CA – Collision Avoidance
• It is difficult to implement Collision detection (CD)
in wireless environment.
• In some cases, it is even impossible to detect the
collision : hidden terminal, fading

A B C
C
A’s signal C’s signal
B strength strength
A

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space
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 IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol:
CSMA/CA

Sender
1 If the channel is available during DIFS Sender Receiver
time then
Send the entire frame (no CD) DIFS
2 if channel is busy then
Starting random back-off (waiting)
data
At the end of back-off time, send data
If no ACK is received, double the back-
off time and try again.
SIFS
Receiver
ACK
- If receive well a frame then
reply by an ACK after SIFS

DIFS: Distributed Inter Frame Space

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SIFS: Short Inter Frame Space 91
Avoid Collision mechanism

Idea: Sender can reserve channel without random access

avoid collision for long frame
Sender send frame RTS (request-to-send) to BS using
CSMA
RTS may meet a collision (with low probability
because the frame is short)
BS broadcast the frame CTS (clear-to-send CTS) to answer
All stations receive CTS
Sender send data frame
All other stations has to cancel the intention to send
frames.

Avoid collision thanks to the reservation

made by small size control frames
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 Collision Avoidance using RTS-CTS

A B
AP

RTS(A) RTS(B)

reservation collision
RTS(A)

CTS(A) CTS(A)

DATA (A)
defer

time
ACK(A) ACK(A)

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 802.11 frame: Addressing

2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0 - 2312 4
frame address address address seq address
duration payload CRC
control 1 2 3 control 4

Address 4: Using in
adhoc mode
Address 1: address of
the destination Address 3: MAC address of
the router attached to the
AP
Address 2: address of the source

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802.11 frame: Addressing

Internet
H1 R1 router
AP

R1 MAC addr AP MAC addr

dest. address source address

802.3 frame

AP MAC addr H1 MAC addr R1 MAC addr

address 1 address 2 address 3

802.11 frame
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802.11 frame
frame seq #
Duration of the reservation (RTS/CTS) (ACK)

2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0 - 2312 4
frame address address address seq address
duration payload CRC
control 1 2 3 control 4

2 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Protocol To From More Power More
Type Subtype Retry WEP Rsvd
version AP AP frag mgt data

frame type
(RTS, CTS, ACK, data)
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Access networks using optical
fiber
Access networks

• Access networks gather data from users

to feed to core network
• Popular access networks for providing
services to users
– Public telephone network
– TV Cable network
– Internet to home network.

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Architecture of access network

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Architecture of access network

• Hub
– Device on the service provider side
receiving data
• Network Interface Unit (NIU)
– Device on the user side connecting an
user or an organization
• Remote Node (RN)
– In broadcasting networks, RN distribute
data from Hub to NIUs
– In switched networks, RN receive data
from Hub and distribute different flows to
NIUs
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Technologies for connecting to ISP using
cable

• Dial-up: • ADSL technology:

• speed 56kbps, • Speed few Mbps,
• Using telephone line • Using telephone line
• Data is transmitted • Data is transmitted in
using the same different frequency
frequency with voice than voice,
 either data or voice technology used in
communication 2000-2010
available • Technology using TV
• Obsolete technology, cable
used before 2000
• FTTH technology:
• Speed dozens Mbps,
• Using optical fiber
• Popular technology
nowadays

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Optical access network: FTTx

• Data is distributed on the fiber cable in the

distribution network until ONU (Optical Network
Unit)
– Expectation: fiber approaches the customers
• FTTCab (Fiber To The Cabinet):
Optical fiber ends at a
cabinet in less than 1 km distance to the subscriber
using copper cable.
• ONU
FTTC (Fiber To The Curb) / FTTB(Fiber To The Building);
serves some subscribers (8 to 64); from ONU to NIU
using copper cable (< 100m)
• FTTH (Fiber To The Home); ONUs performs the
functionality of NIUs;

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Optical access network: FTTx

An example of ONU: optical modem

Figure taken from book Optical Networks: A Practical Perspective, Rajiv Ramaswami, Kumar
Sivarajan
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Optical access networks: FTTx

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 AON vs. PON

Remote Note (Distribution nodes) distribute

data toward destinations.

AON: Active Optical Network

-Remote Node consume electricity
-Remote node analyse and forward packets to
destination according to addresses
-Cable distance can go up to 100 km.

PON: Passive Optical Network

-Remote Node does not consume electricity
-Remote node (Splitter) does not analyze but
repeat signal to all out ports
-Upstream: MUX from different sources using
TDM (TDM PON) or WDM (WDM PON)
-Cable distance is limited within 20km

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EPON: Ethernet PON

• EPON: PON transport Ethernet frames

• Down stream
• Broadcast common data

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 EPON

• Upstream: Mux Ethernet frames

from users to the common link OLT-
RN using TDM

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GPON: Gigabit Capable PON

• GPON may be used to carry different

data: Ethernet, ATM, voice …
• Data from OLT to users share common
chanel between OLT or RN
• Downstream broadcast
• Upstream TDM
• Data are encapsulated in GPON frames with
ID of the receiver (downstream direction),
sender (upstream direction)

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WPON (WDM PON)
• Developed by compagnies and has not been
standardized
• Each ONT use a wavelength to transmit data
• Remote note is AWG (arrayed waveguide grating). The
AWG is capable to MUX/DEMUX wavelengths from up and
down streams.

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