• Introduction

• History
• Operating system zoo
•Mainframe OS
•Server OS
•Multiprocessor OS
•Personal OS
•Real Time OS
•Embedded OS
•Smart card OS
• OS Structure
•Monolithic
•Layered
•Virtual machines
•Exo-kernel
•Client server model

1
INTRODUCTION:
What is modern computer ?
• A modern computer system consists of one or more
processors, some main memory, disks, printers, a
keyboard, a display, network interfaces, and other
input/output devices.`
How to use the components correctly?
• To keep track of all these components and use
them correctly, computers are equipped with a
layer of software called the operating system.
• Operating system manages all devices and
provides user programs with a simpler interface to
the hardware.

2
A computer system

3
• The lowest level in computer system contains physical devices
consisting of integrated circuit chips, wires, power supplies,
cathode ray tubes.
• Next level is the microarchitecture level containing
• some registers internal to the CPU (Central
Processing Unit) and
• Data path containing an arithmetic logic unit.
• In each clock cycle, one or two operands are fetched from the
registers and are combined in the arithmetic logic unit and later
results are stored in one or more registers.
• Machine language layer is devoted to processing the machine
languages.
What are machine languages?
Machine language are limited set of instruction that directly
influence the working of physical devices.
• Operating system consists of a layer of software that
(partially) hides the hardware and gives the programmer a more
convenient set of instructions to work with.
• On top of the operating system are the rest of the system
software like command interpreter (shell), window systems,
compilers, editors, and similar application-independent
programs that are not a part of operating system.
• The operating system runs in kernel mode or supervisor mode4
while application programs run in user mode.
OPERATING SYSTEM AS AN EXTENDED
MACHINE:
•In general, To make a system with set of
physical devices work, systems architecture
including instruction set, memory organization,
I/O and bus structures must be known in-order
to write the machine language that commands
the physical devices to work.
See how many different architectures? (amd,intel,
Motorola,32bit,64bit..)
•But due to the amount of complexity among
different architectures and need to master the
machine language that varies from one
architecture to another, it became difficult for
common peoples to access the system.
•Hence operating system was created whose
function is to present the user with 5 the
 program than the underlying hardware.
How to make os an extended machine to
user to program underlying hardware?
•This is achieved by variety of services
that programs can obtain using special
instructions called system calls.

6
OPERATING SYSTEM AS A RESOURCE MANAGER:
• The job of the operating system is to provide for an orderly
and controlled allocation of the processors, memories, and
I/O devices among the various programs competing for
them.
• As an example, what would happen if three programs
running on some computer all tried to print their output
simultaneously on the same printer. The first few lines of
printout might be from program 1, the next few from
program 2, then some from program 3, and so forth.
• The result would be chaos. So operating system buffers all
the output destined for the printer on the disk. When one
output is printed completely, then the next output stored is
taken and printed.
Incase of multiple user-memory, i/o device, other resources?
Sharing?
• Similarly when a computer (or network) has multiple users,
the need for managing and protecting the memory, i/o
devices, and other resources is even greater, since the
users might interfere with one another. In addition, users
often need to share not only hardware, but information's
7
like files, databases, etc. As well.
•So the operating system primary task is to keep track
of
•who is using which resource,
•Grant of resource requests,
•To account for usage, and
•To mediate conflicting requests from different
programs and users.
•Sharing of resources can be done in two ways: in time
or space.
•When a resource is time multiplexed, different
programs or users wait for their turn to use the
resources. An example of time multiplexing is sharing
the printer. When multiple print jobs are queued up for
printing on a single printer, a decision has to be made
about which one is to be printed next.
•If the resources are space multiplexed, instead of the
customers taking turns, each one gets part of the
resource. For example, main memory is normally
divided up among several running programs, so each
one can be resident at the same time
8
1. HISTORY OF OPERATING SYSTEMS
•The first true digital computer was designed by the
English mathematician Charles Babbage (1792-1871).
Although Babbage spent most of his life and fortune
trying to build his “analytical engine.” he never got it
working properly because it was purely mechanical,
and the technology of his day could not produce the
required wheels, gears, and cogs to the high precision
that he needed.
1.1. The First Generation (1945-55) Vacuum Tubes
and Plug boards:
•Around the mid-1940s, many scientists succeeded in
building calculating engines.
•These used mechanical relays but were very slow,
with cycle times measured in seconds. Relays were
later replaced by vacuum tubes. These machines were
enormous, filling up entire rooms with tens of
thousands of vacuum tubes, but they were still millions
of times slower than even the cheapest personal
computers available today. 9
 •All programming was done in absolute machine
language, often by wiring up plug boards to control the
machine’s basic functions.
1.2 The Second Generation (1955-65) Transistors
and Batch Systems:
•The transistor were introduced in the mid-1950s
leading to the development of mainframes.
•Mainframes were placed in specially air conditioned
computer rooms, with staffs of professional operators to
run them.
But the cost??
•Only big corporations or major government agencies or
universities were able to afford to buy because of the
high cost.
How they operated? (individual and batch mode)
•To run a program or set of programs, a programmer would first
write the program on paper (in FORTRAN or assembler), then
punch it on cards. These cards were placed in mainframe for
getting the inputs processed. The below figure describes this
system where inputs and outputs processed by mainframe are
individually collected. 10
•Next came the batch system, where jobs where
collected in a single room and then read onto a
magnetic tape using in-expensive computers.
After jobs getting processed, the outputs are
written onto a second tape.
•After each job finished, the operating system
automatically read the next job from the tape
and began running it.
•When the whole batch was done, the operator
removed the input and output tapes, replaced
the input tape with the next batch, and brought
the output tape to a 1401 for printing offline

11
 FIG: An early batch system. (a) Programmers
bring cards to 1401. (b) 1401 reads batch of jobs onto
tape. (c) Operator carries input tape to 7094. (d) 7094
does computing. (e) Operator carries output tape to 1401.
(f) 1401 prints output.

12
•The structure of a typical input job is shown in below
figure,
•The $JOB card specifies the maximum run time in
minutes, the account number to be charged, and the
programmer’s name.
•$FORTRAN card tells the operating system to
load the FORTRAN compiler from the system tape.
Then the program to be compiled is loaded.
•$LOAD card directs the operating system to load
the object program just compiled.
•$RUN card, tells the operating system to run the
program with the data following it.
•The $END card marked the end of the job
•Large second-generation computers were used mostly
for scientific and engineering calculations, such as
solving the partial differential equations.
•They were largely programmed in FORTRAN and
assembly language. Typical operating systems were
FMS (the Fortran Monitor System) and IBSYS, IBM’s
operating system for the 7094 13
Structure of a typical FMS job

14
1.3 The Third Generation (1965-1980) ICs and
Multiprogramming:
• The IBM’s 360 was the first major computer line to use (small-
scale) Integrated Circuits (ICs) providing a major performance
advantage over the second-generation machines, which were built
up from individual transistors.
• Nowadays they are often used for managing huge databases (e.g.,
for airline reservation systems) or as servers for World Wide Web
sites that must process thousands of requests per second.
But to meet requirement? In what size it was developed?
• To meet the requirements like compatibility with all models, small
systems, large systems, work capability in commercial and
scientific environments, the operating system OS/360 was
developed with millions of lines of assembly language written by
thousands of programmers.
• The most important of these requirements was multiprogramming.
The case of 7094 & scientific calculation & commercial data
processing?
• On the 7094, when the current job paused to wait for a tape or
other I/O operation to complete, the CPU simply sat idle until the
I/O finished. With heavily CPU-bound scientific calculations, I/O is
infrequent, so this wasted time is not significant. With commercial
data processing, where there is more transactions, waiting time is a
big drawback, so something had to be done to avoid having 15
the
(expensive) CPU be idle so much
•The solution that evolved was to partition memory into
several pieces with a different job in each partition, as
shown in below diagram.
•While one job was waiting for I/O to complete, another
job could be using the CPU. If enough jobs could be
held main memory at once, the CPU could be kept busy
nearly 100 percent of the time.
•The 360 and other third-generation systems were
equipped with special hardware to protect each job
residing in main memory against snooping and mischief
by the other ones, (base
address,index address)

16
A multiprogramming system with three jobs in
•Another ability of third generation operating system
was spooling. Spooling means the ability to store jobs
onto disk and do the processing on jobs and later store
the processed job onto disk, so that they can be read
from the disk whenever needed.
•Desire for quick response time paved the way for
timesharing, a variant of multiprogramming,
•The first timesharing system, CTSS (Compatible Time
Sharing System), was developed at M.I.T. on a specially
modified 7094
•Later a machine called MULTICS (MULTiplexed
Information and Computing Service), that would
support hundreds of simultaneous timesharing users
was created. Their model was the electricity distribution
system — when you need electric power, you just stick
a plug in the wall, and within reason, as much power as
you need will be there.
•Another major development during the third
generation was the phenomenal growth of
minicomputers, starting with the DEC PDP-1 in 1961. 17
•It was quickly followed by a series of other
PDPs, at last the development of PDP series
ended with the development of the PDP-11.
•One of the computer scientists at Bell Labs
wrote a one-user version of MULTICS. Which
later developed into the UNIX operating system.
•Due to source code availability, many different
versions were created with different
compatibility.
•But To make it possible to write programs that
could run on any UNIX system. IEEE developed
a standard for UNIX, called POSIX, that most
versions of UNIX now support. POSIX defines a
minimal system call interface that all UNIX
systems must support.
•In 1987, a small clone of UNIX, called MINIX, for
educational purposes, including support 18was
1.4 The Fourth Generation (1980-Present) Personal
Computers:
•With the development of LSI (Large Scale Integration)
circuits, chips containing thousands of transistors on a
square centimeter of silicon, the age of the personal
computer dawned. In terms of architecture, personal
computers were not all that different from
minicomputers of the PDP-11 class. The microprocessor
chip made it possible for a single individual to have his
or her own personal computer.
•In 1974, after Intel came out with the 8080, the first
general-purpose 8-bit CPU, Gary kildall developed a
controller for 8 inch floppy disk and hooked the floppy
disk up to the 8080, thus producing the first
microcomputer with a disk.
•Kildall then wrote a disk-based operating system called
CP/M (Control Program for Microcomputers) and formed
a company “Digital research”
•In 1977, Digital Research rewrote CP/M to make it
suitable for running on the many microcomputers using
19
• In 1980s, IBM designed the IBM PC and was searching for
software to run on it.
• People from IBM contacted Bill Gates to license his BASIC
interpreter. After licensing, bill gates suggested operating
system CP/M. But due to some misunderstandings, Digital
research refused to IBM’s offers. Then IBM asked gates to
develop an operating system.
• Gates procured DOS(Disk operating system) from Seattle
computer products. Gates told the IBM that he would give
DOS/BASIC package.
• Tim Paterson (DOS creator) hired by Gates did some
modifications to DOS and the revised system was named as
MS-DOS(Microsoft disk operating system).
• IBM PC/AT came out in 1983 with the Intel 80286 CPU and
MS-DOS. The later versions of MS-DOS on 80386 and 80486
had more features taken from UNIX.
• So far CP/M,MS-DOS and other operating systems were all
based on users typing in commands from the keyboard.
• Doug Engelbart at Stanford Research Institute invented the
GUI (Graphical User Interface), pronounced “gooey,”
complete with windows, icons, menus, and mouse. These
ideas were adopted by researchers at Xerox PARC20 and
• Steve Jobs, who co-invented the Apple computer visited PARC,
saw a GUI, and instantly realized its potential value.
• Then Steve jobs started building an Apple computer with a
GUI called LISA, which was very expensive and so failed to be
sold in markets.
• Later the Apple Macintosh was invented, which was a huge
success, not only because it was much cheaper than the Lisa,
but also because it was user friendly, meaning that it was
intended for users who not only knew nothing about
computers.
• When Microsoft decided to build a successor to MS-DOS,
Microsoft influenced by Macintosh success produced a GUI-
based system called Windows, which originally ran on top of
MS-DOS.
• From 1985 to 1993, Windows was just a graphical
environment on top of MS-DOS. However, starting in 1995 a
freestanding version of Windows, Windows 95, was released
that incorporated many operating system features into it,
using the underlying MS-DOS system only for booting and
running old MS-DOS programs,
• In 1998, a slightly modified version of this system, called
Windows 98 was released. Windows 95 and 98 were 16 bit
21
operating system.
•Another Microsoft operating system is Windows
NT was developed and is a 32 bit system.
•Version 5 of Windows NT was renamed
Windows 2000 in early 1999. It was intended to
be the successor to both Windows 98 and
Windows NT 4.0. That did not quite work out
either, so Microsoft came out with yet another
version of Windows 98 called Windows Me
(Millennium edition).
•The other major contender in the personal
computer world is UNIX . UNIX is strongest on
workstations and other high-end computers,
such as network servers. It is especially popular
on machines powered by high-performance
RISC chips.
•On Pentium-based computers, Linux is
becoming a popular alternative to students22and
•In a network operating system, the users are
aware of the existence of multiple computers
and can log in to remote machines and copy
files from one machine to another. Each
machine runs its own local operating system
and has its own local user. Network operating
systems are not fundamentally different from
single-processor operating systems.
•They obviously need a network interface
controller and some low-level software to drive
it, as well as programs to achieve remote login
and remote file access,
•A distributed operating system appears to its
users as a traditional uniprocessor system,
even though it is actually composed of multiple
processors.
• The users should not be aware of where their
23
2. THE OPERATING SYSTEM ZOO
2.1 Mainframe Operating Systems:
•Mainframes are room-sized computers still found in
major corporate data centers with high I/O capacity and
high amount of data storage capacity. An example
mainframe operating system is OS/390, a descendant
of OS/360.
•The operating systems for mainframes are heavily
oriented toward processing many job at once, most of
which need prodigious amounts of I/O. They typically
offer three kinds of services: batch, transaction
processing, and timesharing.
•A batch system is one that processes routine jobs
without any interactive user present. Ex. processing
sales reporting for a chain of stores is typically done in
batch mode.
•Transaction processing systems handle large numbers
of small requests, for example, check processing at a
bank or airline reservations. Each unit of work is small,
but the system must handle hundreds or thousands 24 per
2.2 Server Operating Systems:
• These run on servers, which are either very large
personal computers, workstations, or even mainframes.
They serve multiple users at once over a network and
allow the users to share hardware and software
resources.
• Servers can provide print service, file service, or Web
service.
• Internet providers run many server machines to support
their customers and Web sites and use servers to store
the Web pages and handle the incoming requests.
• Typical server operating systems are UNIX and Windows
2000. Linux is also gaining ground for servers.
2.3 Multiprocessor Operating Systems:
• In order to attain higher computing power the idea is to
connect multiple CPUs into a single system.
• Depending on precisely how they are connected and
what is shared, these systems are called parallel
computers, multicomputer, or multiprocessors. They
need special operating systems, but often these are
variations on the server operating systems, with special
25
2.4 Personal Computer Operating Systems:
• Their job is to provide a good interface to a single user.
They are widely used for word processing, spreadsheets,
and Internet access. Common examples are Windows 98,
Windows 2000, the Macintosh operating system, and Linux.
2.5 Real-Time Operating Systems
• Real time operating systems focuses not on user friendly
interface, rather they focuses on completing some
job/process in a exact time in which the job has to be
completed. For example, if a car is moving down an
assembly line, certain actions must take place at certain
instants of time, if a welding robot, welds too early or too
late, the car will be ruined.
• So hard real time system are systems in which deadline
cannot be missed, If deadlines are missed it leads to
catastrophic.
• Another kind of real-time system is a soft real-time
system, in which missing an occasional deadline is
acceptable. Digital audio or multimedia systems fall in this
category.
• VxWorks and QNX are well-known real-time operating 26
2.6 Embedded Operating Systems:
•Embedded systems run on the computers that
control devices that are not generally thought
of as computers, such as TV sets, microwave
ovens, and mobile telephones. These often
have some characteristics of real- time systems
but also have size, memory, and power
restrictions that make them special. Examples
of such operating systems are Palm OS and
Windows CE (Consumer Electronics)
2.7 Smart Card Operating Systems
•The smallest operating systems run on smart
cards.
•Smart cards are credit card-sized devices
containing a CPU chip. They have very severe
processing power and memory constraints.
Some of them can handle only a single function,
27
•Java applets (small programs) are downloaded to the
card and are interpreted by the JVM interpreter.
•Some of these cards can handle multiple Java applets
at the same time, leading to multiprogramming and the
need to schedule them.
•Resource management and protection also become an
issue when two or more applets are present at the
same time.

28
3. OPERATING SYSTEM STRUCTURE:
•Five different operating system structures that
exists till today are,
3.1 Monolithic system:

monolithic system structure

29
 •In monolithic systems, The operating system is
written as a collection of procedures, in which,
•Each procedure in the system must have a well-
defined interface in terms of parameters and results,
and
•Each one is free to call any other one.
•To construct the actual object program of the
operating system, one first compiles all the
individual procedures, or files containing the
procedures, and then binds them all together
into a single object file using the system linker.
•There is no information hiding, as every
procedures are visible to every other procedure
•In monolithic system, It is possible to have at
least a little structure.
How are service done?
The services (system calls) provided by the
operating system are requested by putting30 the
 •The operating system then fetches the
parameters and determines which system call
is to be carried out. After that, it indexes into a
table that contains in slot k- a pointer to the
procedure that carries out system call k.
•Here the basic structure for the operating
system is,
1.A main program invokes the
requested service procedure.
2.A set of service procedures that
carry out the system calls..
3.A set of utility procedures that help
the service procedures.
3.2 Layered Systems:
•Here operating system is organized as a
hierarchy of layers, each one constructed upon
the one below it. The first system constructed in
this way was the “THE system” built at31 the
•The system had 6 layers, as shown in below
diagram,

Structure of THE operating system

32
•Layer 0 dealt with allocation of the processor,
switching between processes when interrupts
occurred or timers expired and it also provided
the basic multiprogramming of the CPU.
•Layer 1 does the memory management.
•It allocated space for processes in main
memory and also on a 512K word drum used for
holding parts of processes (pages) for which
there was no room in main memory.
•Layer 2 handled communication between each
process and the operator console. Above this
layer each process effectively had its own
operator console.
•Layer 3 took care of managing the I/O devices
and buffering the information streams to and
from them.
•Layer 4 contains user programs. They did33 not
3.3 Virtual Machines
•A group at IBM’s Scientific Center in
Cambridge, Massachusetts, produced a
radically different time sharing system that IBM
accepted as a product and is now widely used
on its mainframes. This system was called
CP/CMS and later renamed as VM/370.
•This timesharing system provides (1)
multiprogramming and (2) an extended
machine with a more convenient interface than
the bare hardware.
•Here the heart of the system, known as the
virtual machine monitor, runs on the bare
hardware and does the multiprogramming and
it provides several virtual machines to the next
layer up, as shown in below figure.
•However, unlike all other operating systems,
34
these virtual machines are not extended
•Because each virtual machine is identical to
the true hardware, each one can run any
operating system that will run directly on the
bare hardware.
•Different virtual machines can, and frequently
do, run different operating systems
•Some run one of the descendants of OS/360
for batch or transaction processing, while other
35
•When a CMS program executes a system call,
the call is trapped to the operating system in its
own virtual machine, not to VM/370, just as it
would if it were running on a real machine
instead of a virtual one.
•CMS then issues the normal hardware I/O
instructions for reading its virtual disk or
whatever is needed to carry out the call.
•These I/O instructions are trapped by VM/370,
which then performs them as part of its
simulation of the real hardware. By completely
separating the functions of multiprogramming
and providing an extended machine.
•Intel provided a virtual 8086 mode on the
Pentium. In this mode, the machine acts like an
8086 (which is identical to an 8088 from a
software point of view), including 16-bit 36
Two variants on this design are possible:
•First one, MS-DOS itself is loaded into the
virtual 8086’s address space, so the virtual
machine monitor just reflects the trap back to
MS-DOS, just as would happen on a real 8086.
When MS-DOS later tries to do the I/O itself,
that operation is caught and carried out by the
virtual machine monitor.
•In the other variant, the virtual machine
monitor just catches the first trap and does the
I/O itself, since it knows what all the MS-DOS
system calls are and thus knows what each trap
is supposed to do. This variant is less pure than
the first one, since it only emulates MS-DOS
correctly, and not other operating systems, as
the first one does. This is much faster, since it
saves the trouble of starting up MS-DOS to 37
do
•Another area where virtual machines are used,
but in a somewhat different way, is for running
Java programs. When Sun Microsystems
invented the Java programming language, it
also invented a virtual machine (i.e., a
computer architecture) called the JVM (Java
Virtual Machine). The Java compiler produces
code for JVM, which then typically is executed
by a software JVM interpreter. The advantage of
this approach is that the JVM code can be
shipped over the Internet to any computer that
has a JVM interpreter and run there.
•Another advantage of using JVM is that, if the
interpreter is implemented properly, incoming
JVM programs can be checked for safety and
then executed in a protected environment so
they cannot steal data or do any damage. 38
• Thus one virtual machine might get disk blocks 0 to 1023,
the next one might get blocks 1024 to 2047, and so on
• At the bottom layer, running in kernel mode, is a program
called the exokernel. Its job is to allocate resources to
virtual machines and then check attempts to use them to
make sure no machine is trying to use somebody else’s
resources. Each user-level virtual machine can run its own
operating system, as on VM/370 and the Pentium virtual
8086s, except that each one is restricted to using only the
resources it has asked for and been allocated
• The advantage of the exokernel scheme is that it saves a
layer of mapping. In the other designs, each virtual machine
thinks it has its own disk, with blocks running from 0 to
some maximum, so the virtual machine monitor must
maintain tables to remap disk addresses (and all other
resources). With the exokernel, this remapping is not
needed. The exokernel need only keep track of which virtual
machine has been assigned which resource. This method
still has the advantage of separating the multiprogramming
(in the exokernel) from the user operating system code (in
user space), but with less overhead, since all the exokernel
39
has to do is keep the virtual machines out of each other.
3.5 Client-Server Model:
•A trend in modern operating systems is to take
the idea of moving code up into higher layers
and removing codes as much as possible from
kernel mode, leaving a minimal microkernel.
•The usual approach is to implement most of
the operating system in user processes. To
request a service, such as reading a block of a
file, a user process (now known as the client
process) sends the request to a server process,
which then does the work and sends back the
answer.

40
•In the above shown model, the kernel handles
the communication between clients and
servers. By splitting the operating system up
into parts, each of which only handles one facet
of the system, such as file service, process
service, terminal service, or memory service,
each part becomes small and manageable.
Furthermore, because all the servers run as
user-mode processes, and not in kernel mode,
they do not have direct access to the hardware.
As a consequence, if a bug in the file server is
triggered, the file service may crash, but this
will not usually bring the whole machine down.
•Another advantage of the client-server model
is its adaptability to use in distributed systems
as shown in below diagram . If a client
communicates with a server by sending 41
The client server model in distributed system

42