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MetTh403 5

The document discusses runoff, streamflow, and hydrographs, explaining how water moves from precipitation to streams and the factors influencing this process. It details the components and characteristics of hydrographs, drainage basin influences, and methods for measuring streamflow. Additionally, it covers the unit hydrograph concept, its derivation, limitations, and the importance of antecedent precipitation in understanding runoff dynamics.

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Md Saiful Islam
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
19 views45 pages

MetTh403 5

The document discusses runoff, streamflow, and hydrographs, explaining how water moves from precipitation to streams and the factors influencing this process. It details the components and characteristics of hydrographs, drainage basin influences, and methods for measuring streamflow. Additionally, it covers the unit hydrograph concept, its derivation, limitations, and the importance of antecedent precipitation in understanding runoff dynamics.

Uploaded by

Md Saiful Islam
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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RUNOFF

MetTh403: Hydrometeorology (03 Credit)


Aishia Fyruz Aishi
Lecturer
Department of Meteorology
University of Dhaka
aishia.fyruz@du.ac.bd
RUNOFF

Runoff is a loose term that covers the movement of water to a


channelized stream, after it has reached the ground as
precipitation. The movement can occur either on or below the
surface and at differing velocities.

A summary of the ideas on how runoff is generated in a


catchment
HYDROGRAPH

Once the water reaches a stream it moves towards the oceans in a channelized
form, the process referred to as streamflow or river flow. Streamflow is
expressed as discharge: the volume of water over a defined time period ( m³/s).
A continuous record of streamflow or river discharge is called a hydrograph.

It is normally either an averaged flow


over a time period or a series of
samples (e.g. hourly records).
The hydrograph peaks are referred to
as peak flow, stormflow or quick
flow. They are the water in the stream
during and immediately after a
significant rainfall event. The steady
periods between peaks are referred to
as baseflow or slow flow.
HYDROGRAPH COMPONENTS
HYDROGRAPH COMPONENTS

The initial steep part of the hydrograph leading up to the highest or


peak flow value is the rising limb. The water contributing to this
part of the hydrograph is from channel precipitation (i.e. rain that
falls directly onto the channel) and rapid runoff mechanisms.
The time interval between the peak rainfall occurrence and the
peak discharge of a river during a storm event is called lag time. It
indicates how fast the peak flow responds to the heaviest rainfall.
The recession limb of the hydrograph after the peak is
characterized by a long, slow decrease in streamflow until the
baseflow is reached again. The recession limb is attenuated by two
factors: storm water arriving at the mouth of a catchment from the
furthest parts, and the arrival of water that has moved as
underground flow at a slower rate than the streamflow.
HYDROGRAPH CHARACTERISTICS

The shape of a hydrograph is a response from a particular catchment to a


series of unique conditions, ranging from the underlying geology and
catchment shape to the antecedent wetness and storm duration. In
particular, the shape of the stormflow peak, is influenced by the storm
characteristics (e.g. rainfall intensity and duration) and many physical
characteristics of the upstream catchment.
If the rainfall intensity is very less then much of the water will be lost in
infiltration and evaporation resulting less runoff. Greater rainfall intensity
and duration will lead to higher runoff.
In terms of catchment characteristics, the largest influence is exerted by
catchment size. Other factors include slope angles, shape of catchment,
soil type, vegetation type and percentage cover, degree of urbanization
and the antecedent soil moisture (the amount of water in the top layer of
soil before a precipitation event).
DRAINAGE BASINS AND ITS
QUANTITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS
AFFECTING RUNOFF
A drainage basin is an area of land drained by a river and its tributaries. It
acts as a natural system in which various physical factors interact to influence
the hydrology of an area. Each factor contributes uniquely to the hydrological
cycle, affecting the flow of water and its interaction with the landscape –
Basin Size and Shape: The size of a drainage basin plays a critical role in
determining the volume of water it can collect and the time it takes for water
to travel across the basin to the river. Larger basins tend to have longer lag
times due to the greater distance water must travel, resulting in a slower but
prolonged peak discharge.
The shape of a drainage basin influences the efficiency of water conveyance
to the main river. Circular basins are more efficient in transferring water,
leading to quicker responses to rainfall and a sharper, higher peak discharge
in the hydrograph. Elongated basins show a more delayed response due to the
varied travel times across different parts of the basin.
DRAINAGE BASINS AND ITS
QUANTITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS
AFFECTING RUNOFF
Drainage density: a measure of
the total length of all the streams
(L) and rivers in a basin divided
by the total area of the basin (A).
Thus, Drainage Density = L / A
Areas with high drainage density
typically have a dense network of
streams and rivers, which
accelerates the movement of
water across the surface, leading
to a rapid hydrological response.
Conversely, low drainage density
means fewer streams and rivers,
resulting in less immediate
surface runoff.
DRAINAGE BASINS AND ITS
QUANTITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS
AFFECTING RUNOFF
Soil and Rock Properties: High porosity leads to greater water absorption, which
can reduce surface runoff. Similarly, highly permeable layers allow water to
infiltrate and move through the ground, replenishing groundwater and reducing
surface runoff. Conversely, impermeable layers lead to increased surface
runoff.
Slope: Steep slopes lead to faster runoff, as gravity pulls water down more
rapidly. This can result in higher peak discharges. Gentle slopes encourage
more infiltration and slower runoff.
Vegetation Types and Cover: Dense vegetation provides significant interception
of precipitation. This reduces the volume of water reaching the ground and the
rivers, moderating flood peaks.
Land Use Practices: Impervious surfaces due to urbanization increase runoff and
reduce infiltration, leading to higher and faster peak discharges. Agricultural
practices can either enhance or reduce runoff depending on the methods used.
HYDROGRAPH SEPARATION

It is done to distinguish between stormflow and baseflow so that the amount of


water resulting from a storm can be calculated. The simplest form of hydrograph
separation is to draw a straight, level line from the point where the hydrograph
starts rising until the stream discharge reaches the same level again (dashed
line). However, the stream may not return to its pre-storm level as the storm may
recharge the baseflow enough so that the level is raised after the storm.

To overcome this problem, a point has


to be chosen on the receding limb
where it is decided that the discharge
has returned to baseflow. By
convention, the point is taken where the
recession limb fits an exponential curve.
This can be detected by plotting the
natural log (ln) of discharge (Q) and
noting where this line becomes straight.
UNIT HYDROGRAPH

The shape of a storm hydrograph is determined by the physical characteristics


of the catchment. The majority of those physical characteristics are static in
time, therefore if an average hydrograph for a particular storm size can be
found then that can be used to predict other storm events. In short: two
identical rainfall events that fall on a catchment with exactly the same
antecedent conditions should produce identical hydrographs.
A unit hydrograph can be defined as ‘the hydrograph of surface runoff
resulting from effective rainfall falling in a unit of time such as 1 hour or 1
day’. It theoretically gives the runoff that can be expected per mm of effective
rainfall in one hour.
The term effective rainfall is taken to be that rainfall that contributes to the
storm hydrograph. This is often assumed to be the rainfall that does not
infiltrate the soil and moves into the stream as overland flow. This is infiltration
excess.
DERIVING THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH

1. Take historical rainfall and streamflow records for a catchment and


separate out a selection of typical single-peaked storm hydrographs. It is
important that they are separate storms as the method assumes that one
runoff event does not affect another.
2. For each of these storm events separate the baseflow from the stormflow.
This will give you a series of storm hydrographs for a corresponding
rainfall event.
3. Take a single storm hydrograph and find out the total volume of water that
contributed to the storm. This can be done either by measuring the area
under the stormflow hydrograph or as an integral of the curve.
4. Then divide the total volume of water in the storm by the catchment area,
and you have the runoff as a water equivalent depth. If this runoff is
assumed to have occurred uniformly over space and time within the
catchment then you can assume it is equal to the effective rainfall.
DERIVING THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH

5. It is also assumed that the effective rainfall all occurred during the
height of the storm (i.e. during the period of highest rainfall intensity).
That period of high rainfall intensity becomes the time for the unit
hydrograph.
6. The unit hydrograph is the stormflow that results from one unit of
effective rainfall. To derive this you need to divide the values of
stormflow (i.e. each value on the storm hydrograph) by the amount of
effective rainfall (from step 4) to give the unit hydrograph. This is the
discharge per millimeter of effective rainfall during the time unit.
7. Repeat steps 3-6 for all of the typical hydrographs. Then create an
average unit hydrograph by merging the curves together. This is
achieved by averaging the value of stormflow for each unit of time for
every derived unit hydrograph. It is also possible to derive different unit
hydrographs for different rain durations and intensities.
USING THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH

Calculations of direct runoff hydrograph in catchment due to a given


rainfall event (with recorded rainfall values), is easy if a unit hydrograph is
readily available. The unit of effective rainfall or runoff as a water
equivalent depth is cm or mm. But all rainfall values should be expressed in
the same unit.
To estimate the ‘effective rainfall’ that will result from the storm rainfall
accurately, it is necessary to have some indication of the infiltration
characteristics for the catchment concerned and also, of the antecedent soil
moisture conditions. The former can be achieved through field
experimentation and the latter through the use of an antecedent
precipitation index (API).
The wetter a catchment is prior to a storm, the more effective rainfall will be
produced. Once the effective rainfall has been established, simply add the
resultant unit hydrographs together to form the resultant storm hydrograph.
LIMITATIONS OF THE UNIT
HYDROGRAPH
1. The runoff that makes up stormflow is derived from infiltration excess
(Hortonian) overland flow. This is not a reasonable assumption to make
in many areas of the world.
2. The assumption that surface runoff occurs uniformly over the
catchment because the rainfall is uniform over the catchment.
3. The assumption that the relationship between effective rainfall and
surface runoff does not vary with time (i.e. the hydrograph shape
remains the same between the data period of derivation and
prediction). This would assume no land-use change within the
catchment, as this could well affect the storm hydrograph shape.
Under the natural conditions of rainfall over drainage basins, the
assumptions of the unit hydrograph cannot be satisfied perfectly. However,
the unit hydrograph has been used successfully for many years in
numerous hydrological situations.
LIMITATIONS OF THE UNIT
HYDROGRAPH
The unit hydrograph is a very simple method of deriving a storm hydrograph
from a relatively small amount of data. Despite being theoretically flawed,
when the hydrologic data used in the unit hydrograph analysis are carefully
selected so that they meet the assumptions closely, the results obtained by
the unit hydrograph theory have been found acceptable (i.e. produces
meaningful predictions of storm hydrographs).
In practice, to meet the basic assumption in the derivation of the unit
hydrograph closely, it is essential to use storms which are uniformly
distributed over the basin and producing rainfall excess at uniform rate. Such
storms rarely occur over large areas. The size of the catchment is, therefore,
limited. The limit is generally considered to be about 5000 sq.km. beyond
which the reliability of the unit hydrograph method diminishes. Then the
basin has to be divided into sub-basins and the unit hydrograph is developed
for each sub-basin. The flood discharge at the basin outlet is then estimated
by combining the sub-basin floods.
ANTECEDENT PRECIPITATION INDEX

Antecedent soil moisture is controlled by how long ago the rain has
fallen and how large that event was. API is calculated by taking a weighted
sum of past precipitation values, where each day's rainfall is multiplied by
a decay factor that decreases with time, giving more importance to recent
rain.
Antecedent Precipitation Index for the current day,
Where,
𝐴𝑃𝐼𝑛−1 = API from
the previous day
𝑃𝑛 = Precipitation
on the current day
(mm)
𝑘 = Decay factor (0
< 𝑘< 1)
SOLUTION
STREAM GAUGING

The techniques and research into the measurement of streamflow


are referred to as hydrometry. Streamflow measurement can be
subdivided into instantaneous and continuous techniques.
Stream gauging is a technique to measure the discharge. Runoff
from a catchment can be determined by measuring the discharge of
the stream draining it.
The height of water in the stream channel, known as stage or gauge
height, can be used to determine the discharge in a stream using a
site-specific relation (called a stage-discharge rating curve)
developed from onsite water level and streamflow measurements.
For a stage-discharge station, both a stage measurement device and
a flow gauging site are required in the same locality.
SELECTION OF STAGE GAUGING
SITES
1. The gauging site should be located outside high turbulence zones,
close to the edge of the stream at a place where the banks are stable
and preferably steep.
2. The downstream reach shall be stable and sensitive to be able to
establish a stable stage-discharge relation, where significant changes
in the discharge create significant changes in stage.
3. The site shall be outside the backwater zone of confluences and
structures. The extent of the backwater reach L is approximately:
L=
Where, = normal or equilibrium depth and S = slope of the river bed
Nearby benchmarks should be available or be established to allow regular
levelling of the gauge.
INSTANTANEOUS STREAMFLOW
MEASUREMENT
The velocity–area method is used to measure the streamflow or
discharge (Q). This method measures the stream velocity, the
stream cross-sectional area and multiplies the two together. In
practice this is carried out by dividing the stream into small sections
and measuring the velocity of flow going through each cross-
sectional area and applying equation:
+…+
The black circles indicate the
position of velocity readings (v).
Dashed lines represent the
triangular or trapezoidal cross-
sectional area (a) through which
the velocity is measured.
INSTANTANEOUS STREAM FLOW
MEASUREMENT
The number of sub-sectional areas that
are used in a discharge measurement
depend upon the width and
smoothness of stream bed. If the bed is
particularly rough it is necessary to use
more sub-sections so that the estimates
are as close to reality as possible.
The water velocity measurement is
usually taken with a current meter.
This is a form of propeller inserted into
the stream which records the number of
propeller turns with time. This reading
can be easily converted into a stream
velocity using the calibration equation
supplied with the current meter.
INSTANTANEOUS STREAM FLOW
MEASUREMENT
The water travels faster along the surface than
nearer the stream bed. This difference in velocity is
due to friction exerted on the water as it passes over
the stream bed, slowing it down. As a general rule of
thumb, the sampling depth should be 60% of the
stream depth – that is, in a stream that is 1 m deep
the sampling point should be 0.6 m below the surface
or 0.4 m above the bed. In a deep river it is good
practice to take two measurements (one at 20% and
the other at 80% of depth) and average the two.
In absence of current meters, it may be possible to make a very rough
estimate of stream velocity using a float in the stream (i.e. the time it takes
to cover a measured distance). It must be kept in mind that the float is
travelling on the surface of the stream at a faster rate than water closer to the
stream bed.
INSTANTANEOUS STREAM FLOW
MEASUREMENT
IDEAL GAUGE SITE SELECTION

For current meters


1. The selected site shall have a long, straight, uniform, well-
defined approach channel upstream of the measuring section to
ensure parallel and non-turbulent flow and to minimize irregular
velocity distribution. Generally, for rivers less than 100 m wide a
straight approach of 4 x channel width is considered to be
sufficient, whereas for rivers greater than 100 m wide the
minimum standard of 400 m straight approach should be
adopted if possible. When the length of the straight channel is
restricted, it is recommended that the straight length upstream
should be at least twice that downstream.
2. The site shall be year-round accessible and the section be stable,
confined to one channel with no overbank flow.
IDEAL GAUGE SITE SELECTION

3. Sufficient flow depth should be available to provide effective


immersion of the current meter and the flow velocities shall be
within the calibration range of current meters.
For floats
4. Float measurements require a measuring track, which is straight
and uniform in cross-section over a length of five times the
average width of cross-sections.
5. The riverbank shall be easily accessible to mark the passage of
the floats and wind effects shall be minimum.
CONTINUOUS STREAMFLOW
MEASUREMENT
There are three different techniques that can be used for this method: stage-
discharge relationships, flumes and weirs, and ultrasonic flow gauging.

Stage vs discharge
relationship River stage is another term for the water
level or height. Where multiple discharge
measurements have been taken (i.e. repeat
measurements using velocity–area method),
it is possible to draw a relationship between
river stage and discharge: the rating curve.
The rating curve is non-linear, a reflection of
the river bank profile. As the river fills up
between banks it takes a greater volume of
water to change the stage than at low
levels.
STAGE VS DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIP

The stage vs discharge relationship is derived


through a series of velocity–area
measurements at a particular site while at the
same time recording the stage with a stilling
well.
An accurate stage vs discharge relationship is
dependent on frequent
measurement and accurate
of river discharge, and a static river bed profile. If the river bed
profile changes (e.g. during a large flood event it may get scoured out or
new sediment deposited), the stage vs discharge relationship will change and
the historic relationship will no longer be valid. Another difficulty with this
method is that the requirement of frequent measurements of river discharge.
Many measurements are taken during periods of low and medium flow but
very few during flood events. The lack of data at the extreme end of the stage
vs discharge curve causes much higher error in estimating peak discharge at
the high flow end of curve.
FLUMES AND WEIRS

The assumption of a static river bed profile can sometimes be


problematic, leading to the installation of a concrete structure (e.g.
flume or weir) to maintain stability.
WEIRS

A weir is basically a dam obstructing the passage of water through the channel
that slows the stream down (or, in some rare cases, speed a stream up) so that
it flows with constant velocity through a known cross-sectional area.
This way a simple measure of stream height through the gauging structure will
give the cross-sectional area. Stream height is normally derived through a
stilling well. But in this case, there is a regular cross-sectional area. Three
styles of weir are shown in the following illustration.

The shape of the


structure is
determined by the
flow regime of the
river and the
requirements for the
streamflow data.
WEIRS

A common shape used is based on


the V-structure. Because when river
levels are low, a small change in
river flow will correspond to a
significant change in stage. Under
high flow conditions the river
should not overtop the weir
structure. As discharge increases Where,
the cross-sectional area flowed Q = flow rate (cubic feet per
through increases in a non-linear second)
fashion.
L = Width of crest (feet)
The angle of the V-notch will vary
depending on the size of stream θ = V-notch angle (degrees)
being measured and the sensitivity
required. H = Head (feet)
WEIRS

At a condition of zero flow through


the channel, the water level will be at
or below the crest (lowest point on
the opening) of the weir. As the water
begins to flow through the channel, it
must spill over the crest of the weir in
order to get past the weir and
continue downstream in the channel.
As flow is increased even more, a
greater pressure (head) will be
generated upstream of the weir,
forcing the water level to rise. This
effectively increases the cross-
sectional area of the weir’s “throat”
as a taller stream of water exits the
notch of the weir.
FLUMES

One of the difficulties in maintaining gauging structures is that by slowing


the river down in a any sediment being carried by the water may be
deposited, which in time will fill the bottom of the structure and lessen its
usefulness.
To overcome this difficulty there is a design of trapezoidal flume that
speeds the stream up rather than slows it down. The stream is forced to go
down a steep section immediately prior to the gauging structure. In this way
any sediment is flushed out of the weir, removing the need for regular
dredging. This is really only possible for small streams as the power of
large rivers at high velocities would place enormous strains on the gauging
structure.
The difference between flumes and weirs is that in a weir the water is forced
to drop over a structure in the fashion of a small waterfall. In a flume the
water passes through the structure without having a waterfall at the end.
ULTRASONIC FLOW GAUGING

In this method, stream discharge is measured using the properties of sound


wave propagation in water. The method actually measures water velocity. But
where the stream bed cross-sectional area is known (and constant), the
instrumentation can be left in place and combined with measurements of
stage to provide a continuous measurement of river discharge. There are two
types of ultrasonic flow gauges –
Doppler flowmeter: it utilizes the Doppler effect to measure the speed of
particles being carried by the stream. At an extremely simple level this is a
measurement of the wavelength of ultrasonic waves that bounce off
suspended particles – the faster the particle the shorter the wavelength. This
type of instrument works in small streams (less than 5 m width) and requires
some suspended matter.
A transmitting transducer is used to emit an ultrasonic beam into the stream
flowing through the channel. The motion of particles causes a frequency shift
of the beam, which is received by a second transducer.
ULTRASONIC FLOW GAUGING

The flow velocity is measured as V =


Where, Ct is the velocity of sound inside the transducer, is the transmission
frequency, is the reflected frequency, and a is the angle of the transmitter and
receiver crystals with respect to the
streambanks. The flow (Q gallon per
minute) in a channel having a certain
width (W in inches) can be obtained by:
Q = 2.45×V×W²
Rule of thumb: presence of a minimum
of 80-100 mg/l of solids with a particle
size of +75 micron. In the case of
bubbles, 100-200 mg/l with diameters
between +75 and +150 microns is
desirable.
ULTRASONIC FLOW GAUGING

Transit time flowmeter: it measures the time taken for an ultrasonic wave
emitted from a transmitter to reach a receiver on the other side of a river. The
faster the water speed, the greater the deflection of the wave path and the longer
it will take to cross the river. Sound travels at approximately 1,500 m/s in water
(dependent
water purityon and depth) so the
instrumentation used in this type of flow
gauging needs to be extremely precise
and be able to measure in nanoseconds.
This type of flow gauging can be
installed as a permanent device but
needs a width of river greater than 5 m
and becomes unreliable with a high
level of suspended solids. When flow is
zero, the time for the signal T1 to get to
T2 is equal to that required to get from
T2 to T1.
ULTRASONIC FLOW GAUGING

The flow velocity can be determined as V = Kdt/


Where K is a calibration factor for the volume and time units used, dt is
the time differential between upstream and downstream transit times,
and is the zero-flow transit time.
Theoretically, transit-time ultrasonic meters can be very accurate
(inaccuracy of ±0.1% of reading is sometimes claimed). Yet the error in
these measurements is limited by both the ability of the signal processing
electronics to determine the transit time and by the degree to which the
sonic velocity (C) is constant. The speed of sound in the fluid is a function
of both density and temperature. Therefore, both have to be compensated
for. In addition, the change in sonic velocity can change the refraction
angle (a), which in turn will affect the distance the signal has to travel. In
extreme cases, the signal might completely miss the downstream
receiver. This type of failure is known as walk-away.
STREAMFLOW ESTIMATION: PHYSICAL
OR GEOMORPHOLOGICAL
TECHNIQUES
The geomorphological
approach to river systems
utilizes the idea that the river
channel is in equilibrium with
the flow regime. This
suggests that measures of
the channel (e.g. depth/width
ratio, wetted perimeter,
height to bankfull discharge)
can be used to estimate the
streamflow. This approach
can be used to estimate the
mean annual flood rather
than estimating the
discharge in a river at one
particular time.
STREAMFLOW ESTIMATION: PHYSICAL
OR GEOMORPHOLOGICAL
TECHNIQUES
Important parameters to consider are the stream diameter, wetted
perimeter and average depth, particularly for the area of channel
that fills up during a small flooding event: bankfull discharge.
It is possible to estimate the average velocity (v) of a river stretch
using a kinematic wave equation such as Manning’s:

Where, k is a constant (1 for SI units); R is the


hydraulic radius (m); s is the slope (m/m); and n
is the Manning roughness coefficient. Hydraulic
radius is the wetted perimeter of a river divided
by the cross-sectional area. In very wide channels
this can be approximated as mean depth.
MANNING ROUGHNESS COEFFICIENT

The Manning roughness coefficient is estimated from knowledge of


the channel characteristics (e.g. vegetation and bed
characteristics).
FLOW DURATION CURVES

An understanding of how much water is flowing down a river is


fundamental to hydrology. Flow duration curves are concerned with the
amount of time a certain flow is exceeded. The data most commonly used
are daily mean flows: the average flow for each day.
To derive a flow duration curve the daily mean flow data are required for a
long period of time, in excess of five years. The steps involved are:
Step 1: A table is derived that has the frequency, cumulative frequency
(frequency divided by the total number of observations) and percentage
cumulative frequency. The percentage cumulative frequency is assumed to
equal the percentage of time that the flow is exceeded. To ensure precise
plotting, a small class interval should be used; too large an interval and
information will be lost from the flow duration curve. General rule is to not
have more than around 10% of the values within a single class interval. It is
not essential that the same interval is used throughout.
FLOW DURATION CURVES

Step 2: The actual flow duration curve is created by plotting the percentage
cumulative frequency on the x-axis against the mid-point of the class interval on
the y-axis. Where two flow duration curves are presented on the same axes they
need to be standardized for direct comparison. To do this the values on the y-axis
(mid-point of class interval) are divided by the average flow for the record length.
This makes the y-axis a percentage of the
average flow. The presentation of a flow duration
curve may be improved by plotting a natural log
transformation of the flow values (y-axis).
Interpreting a flow duration curve
Two contrasting flow duration curves. The dotted
line has a high variability in compared to the
solid line (similar to a catchment with a high
baseflow).
STATISTICS DERIVED FROM A FLOW
DURATION CURVE
ESTIMATION OF MONTHLY FLOWS
FROM RAINFALL
THANK YOU!

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