Hydrology and fluvial geomorphology

1.1- The Drainage Basin System

Key Terms:

● Confluence: A point where 2 streams/rivers meet

● Drainage basin: the area of land drained by a river and its tributaries.
● Mouth: the point where a river leaves its drainage basin as it flows into the
sea.
● Tributary: a stream or small river that joins a larger stream/river.
● Watershed: the boundary of a drainage basin. It separates one from another
and is usually high land: hills, ridges.
● Source: The starting point of a river.
● Open system: a system that freely exchanges energy and matter with its
surroundings.
● Closed system: a system that exchanges only energy with its surroundings,
not matter.
● Evaporation:liquid turning into a gas– sublimation
● Evapotranspiration: water vapor escaping plants and enters the atmosphere,
● Potential Evapotranspiration: the amount of water that could be lost
● River discharge: The volume of water passing through a cross sectional part
of a river, measured in cm3 per second.
● Interception: water that is intercepted by vegetation(branches, leaves) before
reaching the ground. Short-term store
● Interception loss. Same as interception, except as water might get lost
through evap. and some might be absorbed.
● Throughfall: some might fall through gaps or drop from leaves/twigs.
● Stemflow: some will move along twigs and branches eventually running down
the main branch of the tree.
● Field capacity: The maximum amount of water that soil can hold before it
becomes saturated.
● Soil moisture deficit
● Soil moisture recharge
● Soil moisture surplus
● Soil moisture utilisation
● Porosity: The capacity of rock to hold water-e.g sandstone has a porosity
space of 5-15% whereas clay is around 50%
● Permeability: The capacity of water to flow through earth materials
● Storm hydrograph: graph showing how rainfall in storm impacts the discharge
of a river
● Discharge: the amount of water that reaches the channel by surface runoff
● Lag time: the time between peak rainfall and peak discharge
● Run off: the volume of water that flows over the land to reach the river
● Rising limb: the line that represents the increasing discharge- it is steep if run
off is high
 ● Falling limb: the section that represents a river returning to base flow
● Bankfull discharge: when the river’s water level reaches the top of its channel,
any further discharge will result in flooding
● Peak discharge: the maximum discharge of the river as a result of the storm
● Peak rainfall: the highest amount of rainfall resulting from the storm
● base flow: the average discharge of a river
● Eddy: a circular movement of water, counter to a main current, causing a
small whirlpool.
● Thalweg: the flow where velocity is greatest due to the lack of friction
● Sinuosity: how much a river varies from a straight line

The drainage basin system:

-It is an open system-it allows the movement of energy and matter across its
boundaries.
The elements of the system: inputs,storage,transfers,outputs

Outputs:

● Evaporation:
○ Warm + dry conditions= increase the process
○ Cold + calm conditions= decrease

● Factors affecting it:

○ temperature
○ humidity
○ wind speed
○ amount of water
○ vegetation cover
○ albedo
● Evapotranspiration
○ Nearly 100% of all precipitation loss in arid areas
○ 75% in humid areas
○ Most important aspect of water loss
○ Pure evaporation only occurs over ice/snow fields, bare rock slopes,
desert area, water surfaces and bare soil

● PEVT

●
●
●
●
●
●
● In dry arid countries(Egypt/Qatar) there will be little annual rainfall
 ○ If there was enough rainfall there is enough heat to evaporate more
water

Type of vegetation and vegetation density:

-Interception loss will vary because of the type of vegetation
-It will increase if with crop density especially with agriculture crops(ex:corn)

● The difference between coniferous and deciduous trees is that the deciduous
shed off their leaves seasonally while coniferous trees keep their leaves
year-round.

● Coniferous: have green needles instead of broad leaves. They tend to be

evergreen and cover all of the pine trees. Spruce is a conifer, but it does
actually shed its needles in the winter. Christmas trees (spruce) are
coniferous trees.
● Deciduous: are giant flowering plants. They include oaks, maples, and
beeches, and they grow in many parts of the world. The word deciduous
means to “fall off,” and every fall these trees shed their leaves. Most
deciduous trees are broad-leaved, with wide, flat leaves.

● Soil water: water that is stored in the upper levels of the soil, utilised by plants.
● Surface water: water stored in puddles, lakes. Dependent on the size of these
stores, they can last from hours to a million years.
● Groundwater: water that is stored in the pore spaces of rock, lower soil.
● Channel storage: water that is stored in a river’s channel.

Soil water:
● The water balance: The difference between the inputs and the outputs in the
drainage basin, is the water balance.
● If precipitation exceeds runoff and evapotranspiration, there will be a positive
water balance – the amount of water stored in the system will be increasing.
● If runoff and evapotranspiration exceed precipitation, there will be a negative
water balance – the amount of water stored in the system will decrease
 ● Soil moisture graph: The relationship between precipitation and PEVT for a
drainage basin is shown on this graph.

Flows:

● it is just the flow or transfer of water around the drainage basin system
● Some will be above ground and below ground

Porosity vs permeability:
● porosity is the amount of water the rock can hold
● Permeability is the level the water can move around the rock through joints
and fissures in the rock
 ● In the Hortonian flow diagram, the soil is not saturated, but the water can not
infiltrate (either because it is impermeable or the rainfall is too intense). It
therefore flows over the surface as overland flow
● In the Saturated overland flow diagram, the soil is full up of water (saturated)
so can not take any more. So water flows over the surface as overland flow
(factors that influence the rates of infiltration)
Underground water:

● Aquifers are permeable rocks such as sandstones or limestones.

● Can store and transmit water
● Water moves slowly
● Absorb rainfall
● Maintain stream flow when no precipitation
● Discharge can occur in the form of springs appearing / artesian well
(pumpless well)

What factors affect overland flow:

● If rainfall intensity exceeds infiltration capacity then Hortonian (infiltration
excess) flow occurs. This occurs in arid or semi-arid environments where the
rain is intense or in areas of impermeable surfaces.

Duration of Rainfall:

● Initially, infiltration dominates because the soil has capacity to absorb water.
● As the duration increases, the soil becomes saturated, reducing infiltration,
and surface runoff increases.

Antecedent Soil Moisture:

● Dry soil allows more infiltration because it has higher unsaturated capacity.
● Wet soil reduces infiltration due to saturation, leading to higher surface runoff.

Soil Porosity:

● High porosity (large spaces in the soil) allows more infiltration, reducing
surface runoff.
● Low porosity limits water absorption, increasing runoff.

Vegetation Cover:

● Vegetation slows down water flow and increases infiltration through root
systems and organic material.
● Bare earth promotes faster surface runoff due to lack of obstruction.

Raindrop Size:

● Larger raindrops compact the soil and create surface sealing, reducing
infiltration and increasing runoff.
● Smaller raindrops have less impact on soil structure, allowing more infiltration.

Slope Angle:

● Steeper slopes promote rapid surface runoff as water flows downhill quickly.
● Gentle slopes allow more time for infiltration due to slower water movement.
Hydrograph: A flood hydrograph is a graph which shows the discharge following a
period of rainfall

River regimes:

● Factors influencing storm hydrographs:

○ area
 ○ shape
○ slope
○ rock type
○ soil
○ land use
○ drainage density
○ precipitation/temp
○ tidal conditions

Factor Impact on flow of rainwater Impact on hydrograph shape

to river

Area Larger areas collect more Larger areas result in a longer

rainfall, leading to higher river lag time and higher peak flow.
flow.

Shape Circular basins concentrate Circular basins create a steep

flow quickly. rising limb and shorter lag time.

Slope Steeper slopes increase Steeper slopes lead to a shorter

runoff speed. lag time and a sharper peak.

Rock Type Impermeable rocks increase Impermeable rocks produce a

surface runoff. flashy hydrograph with steep
peaks.

Soil Permeable soils reduce runoff Permeable soils create a flatter

by allowing infiltration. hydrograph with less sharp
peaks.

Land Use Urban areas increase runoff Urban areas result in a steep
due to impermeable surfaces. rising limb and high peak flow.

Drainage High drainage density High density causes a steep

Density accelerates water delivery to rising limb and shorter lag time.
the river.

Precipitation Heavy rainfall and low Intense rainfall creates a steep

and temperatures increase runoff. rising limb and high peak.
Temperature

Tidal High tides may block river High tides may delay recession
Conditions outflow, causing flooding. and alter base flow.

Interpretations of influencing factors of hydrographs

● Area
○ Large basins receive more precipitation than small therefore have
larger runoff
 ○ Larger size means longer lag time as water has a longer distance to
travel to reach the trunk river

● Shape:
○ Elongated basin will produce a lower peak flow and longer lag time
than a circular one of the same size

● Slope: Channel flow can be faster down a steep slope therefore steeper rising
limb and shorter lag time

● Rock type: Permeable rocks mean rapid infiltration and little overland flow
therefore shallow rising limb

● Soil:
○ Infiltration is generally greater on thick soil, although less porous soils
eg. clay act as impermeable layers
○ The more infiltration occurs the longer the lag time and shallower the
rising limb

● Land use:
○ Urbanisation - concrete and tarmac form impermeable surfaces,
creating a steep rising limb and shortening the time lag
○ Afforestation - intercepts the precipitation, creating a shallow rising
limb and lengthening the time lag

● Drainage density:
○ a higher density will allow rapid overland flow

● Precipitation and temperature:

○ Short intense rainstorms can produce rapid overland flow and steep
rising limb
○ If there have been extreme temperatures, the ground can be hard
(either baked or frozen) causing rapid surface run off
○ Snow on the ground can act as a store producing a long lag time and
shallow rising limb. Once a thaw sets in the rising limb will become
steep

● Tidal conditions:
○ High spring tides can block the normal exit for the water, therefore
extending the length of time the river basin takes to return to base flow

● These factors will influence each other, change throughout the river course.

River regimes: A river regime is the annual variation in discharge in a river. It is

determined by the climate of an area, e.g the amount and distribution of rainfall,
rates of evapotranspiration and snowmelt.

● During the year in Britain, it would be expected that the discharge of most
rivers would be greater in winter months than in the summer.
 ● The regime of an Alpine stream, has a minimaldischarge compared to that of
a British stream during the winter.
● This is because most of the precipitation in the Alps during the winter falls
as snow. During the spring months, when the snow melted, the discharge of
the Alpine river shows an incredible increase, which often leads to flooding
problems

● Factors influencing the river regime:

Influences on hydrographs:

● VEGETATION COVER
○ This varies seasonally. The type and amount will affect interception and
stemflow/throughfall. Overland flow is reduced. Lag time will be
increased.
● CLIMATE:
○ The distribution of rainfall over the year and the temperatures will affect
the lag times.
● SLOPES
○ Steep slopes will encourage overland flow and gentle slopes will slow
down.
 ● RAINFALL INTENSITY and DURATION
○ Intense rain will increase overland flow and reduce lag times. Gentle
rain over a longer time will allow more infiltration.
● ROCK TYPE
○ Impermeable rocks prevent groundwater flow and encourage through
flow and overland flow. These rocks will decrease lag time. Permeable
rock will have the opposite effect.
● LAKES & RESERVOIRS
○ These will store floodwater and thus reduce lag time and control river
response to heavy rainfall
● SOIL TYPE & DEPTH
○ Deep soils store more water, pipes in the soil encourage through flow.
Soils with small pore spaces will reduce infiltration and increase
overland flow.
● LAND USE
○ Impermeable surfaces created by urbanisation will reduce infiltration
and encourage overland flow.
○ Different types of crops affect interception rates e.g. cereals 7-15%.
● DRAINAGE DENSITY

Drainage density: •It is the average length of stream within each area.
•Calculated by measuring the total length of all the streams and dividing by the area.

● What effects drainage density?:

○ Geology and soils - drainage densities are higher on impermeable
surfaces because there is less infiltration.
○ Land use - vegetation increases interception and reduces drainage
density.
○ Time - the number of tributaries and therefore the drainage density
tend to reduce overtime.
○ Precipitation - areas of high precipitation tend to have higher drainage
densities.
○ Relief - drainage densities are usually higher on steep land because
there is less infiltration and often less vegetation (depending on
aspect).

Types of erosion:

● Hydraulic action:
○ This results from the sheer force of the water hitting the river bed and
banks and wearing them away. It also includes cavitation – the force
of air exploding. Accelerated water causes air bubbles to form, these
implode and eject tiny jets of water causing the rock to break down.

● Abrasion corrasion:
 ○ This is caused by the river picking up stones and rubbing them against
the bed and banks of the channel in the flow (it is similar tothe action of
sandpaper). This wears the bed and banks away.

● Attrition:
○ Any material carried in the river will become rounder and smaller
over time as it collides with other particles and the sharp edges
get knocked off. It is the erosion of the rivers load.

● Solution:
○ The dissolving of rocks and minerals by river water flowing over them.
It is related to the chemical composition of the water.

● What factors can affect the rates of erosion?:

○ pH level
○ Load
○ Velocity
○ Gradient
○ Geology
○ Humans

Transport and deposition:

● Why is material transported, where does it come from?

○ Erosion by the river creates loose material, this and other weathered
material from the valley sides is carried by the river as its load through
transportation.
○ The load of a river varies with discharge, velocity and the section of the
rivers course.
○ The capacity of a stream refers to the largest amount of material that a
stream can carry.
○ The competence refers to the diameter of the largest particle that can
be carried

● Global sediment yield:

○ We can measure the amount of material found in water around the
world
○ This can be influenced by a wide range of factors such as climate,
geology, vegetation and land use

● Transportation processes:
○ Suspension is a method of transporting very fine sediment in a river.
The sediment is probably eroded from larger rocks upstream and is
then carried in the water. When the sediment is deposited from the
water it is known as silt.
 ○ Solution – in areas with calcareous rock such as limestone then the
material will be dissolved and these dissolved chemicals will be
transported in the river. This varies along the river depending on the
presence of soluble rocks.
○ Traction - a current transports larger, heavier rocks by rolling or sliding
them along the bottom of the river bed
○ Saltation - Small rocks or pebbles which are too big to be carried
within the water are transported and bounce along the bottom of the
river bed.

● Deposition:Deposition is the process of the eroded material being dropped.

This happens when a river loses energy.
○ A river can lose its energy when rainfall reduces, evaporation
increases, friction close to riverbanks and shallow areas which leads to
the speed of the river reducing and
○ Therefore the energy reduces, when a river has to slow down it
reduces its speed (and ability to transport material) and when a river
meets the sea.

The Hjulstrom curve:

● It shows the relationship between the velocity of a river and the size of the
particles that can be eroded, transported or deposited.
 ● A river with high discharge and velocity increases its capacity & competence
which allows an increase in erosion of the river channel
● Velocity need to keep particles in suspension is less than to erode them
● Erosion of clay particles needs a velocity similar to that for pebbles because
of their cohesive properties
● Velocity need to transport clay particles is almost zero (clay particles stay
afloat in water i.e. in suspension even when there is no velocity at all as they
are very small)
● Pebbles, cobblers, boulder have a narrow gap between the amount of energy
needed for erosion and deposition; i.e. only small drop in velocity can cause
deposition of larger particles

River flow:
● Changing characteristics from the source to the mouth:
○ •A river changes with increasing distance from its source towards its
mouth, as it moves from its upper course, to its middle course and
finally into its lower course.
The key characteristics of a river are:
○ Width: the distance from one bank to the other
○ Depth: the distance from the surface if the water to the bed
○ Velocity: how fast the water is flowing
○ Discharge: the rate at which the water is moved through the river
channel
○ Gradient: the steepness of the river bed

● River profile:
River flow patterns:
● As a river flows it seeks the path of less resistance- maximise velocity,
minimise the loss of energy.

● Laminar flow: the slow horizontal movement of water over smooth surfaces
○ it’s not a common type of river flow.
○ for it to exist, water would travel over sediment of a riverbed without
disturbing it.
○ happens in the centre of a river channel

● Turbulent flow: the dominant type of flow, consisting of horizontal and

vertical eddies in a downstream direction, occurs where there are higher
velocities and complex channel morphology (meandering channel – pools &
riffles).
○ Turbulence depends on velocity which also depends on the amount of
energy available after friction has been overcome. The rougher the
channel the more turbulence, rocky beds create more turbulence than
alluvial channels (channels made up of loose sediment).
○ Eddy - a circular movement of water, counter to a main current,
causing a small whirlpool.
○ This is found in the headwater of a rushing mountain stream.

● How does velocity influence turbulence?:

○ •If the velocity is high, the amount of energy available after friction is
high so turbulence increases. This results in sediment been disturbed
and transported downstream.
 ○ •If the velocity is low, there is less energy to overcome friction so
turbulence decreases. Sediment on the riverbed is not disturbed and
can lead to deposition of a river’s load.
○ •95% of a river's energy is used to overcome friction!

● Helicoidal flow: Corkscrew movement, found in a meander.

○ responsible for moving sediment from the outside of one meander
bend and depositing it on the inside of the next bend.

Potholes:

● Turbulence is associated with hydraulic action as the eddies swirl against the
bed and banks, air bubbles are trapping in the pores and cracks of the rock.
This then explodes weakening the bed and bank (cavitation).
● Vertical turbulence creates hollows in the channel bed. Hollows may trap
sediments (pebbles) that swirl around grinding down the bed. This is a form of
vertical abrasion and given time may create potholes in the riverbed.

Channel types:

Thalweg: the flow where velocity is greatest due to the lack of friction

● Sinuosity: how much a river varies from a straight line

● Straight channel:
○ •Sinuosity of <1.5 and are generally rare. Even when they do occur the
thalweg (line of maximum velocity) moves from side to side.
○ •These channels generally have a central ridge of deposited material
due to the water flow pattern.

● Braided channel:
 ○ Braiding occurs when the channel is divided into smaller sub-channels
by islands or eyots(vegetated – stable) or bars (unvegetated –
temporary) of deposition.
○ When the volume of load exceeds the river’s capacity or the discharge
of the river drops, the river is forced to deposit its load in the channel
and islands of sediment (eyots) form.
○ e.g Yellow river China

● Conditions needed for braided channels:

○ large amount of load
○ Easily eroded bank material
○ variable discharge
○ steep gradient

○ High Sediment Load:

A braided channel forms when a river carries a large load of sediment
relative to its flow capacity. This often occurs in areas with high erosion
rates, such as mountainous regions or areas with glacial activity.
○ Variable Discharge:
Braided channels often occur in rivers with highly variable flow rates.
During periods of high discharge, the river has the energy to transport
large quantities of sediment. During low-flow periods, some sediment is
deposited, forming bars.
○ Shallow Gradient:
Rivers with a shallow gradient and a wide valley floor are more likely to
form braided channels. These conditions reduce the energy of the
water, making it harder for the river to transport all its sediment load.
○ Channel Instability:
As sediment accumulates on the riverbed, it creates obstructions that
split the flow into multiple channels. These channels continually shift as
the river erodes and deposits material, creating a dynamic and
ever-changing network.

● Meandering channel:
○ Meanders are bends in a river that from as a river’s sinuosity increases
>1.5
○ Meanders develop when alternating riffles & pools form along a river
channel. A riffle is a shallow section of a channel while a pool is a
deep section.

Channel Sinuosit Characteristi Factors required for

type y cs formation
Straig Low Single, linear channel; often Steep gradients, high energy,
ht (<1.5 rare in nature; usually strong geological controls (e.g.,
) associated with human faults, resistant rocks), or
modifications or structural human intervention.
controls.

Meanderi High Single, sinuous channel with Moderate sediment load,

ng (>1.5 pronounced bends (meanders); low gradient, cohesive bank
) alternating pools and riffles; material (e.g., clay or silt),
well-defined floodplains. and stable discharge.

Braide Low Network of interwoven channels High sediment load, variable

d (<1.5 separated by bars or islands; discharge, low gradient, and
) highly dynamic and prone to limited vegetation for
frequent channel shifts. stabilization.

Meanders and OxBow lakes:

● Riffle: a rocky/ shallow part of a stream or river with rough water

● Pool and riffles- meander formation:

○ In a pool, the channel is more efficient, while at a riffle, the channel is
less efficient. This causes the flow of the river to become irregular and
the maximum flow is concentrated on one side of the river.
○ This increases erosion on one side of the river and increases
deposition on the other causing the river’s channel to appear to bend.
○ Erosion is greatest on the outside bend and deposition is greatest on
the inside bend.

● Pool and riffle cross section:

○ The alternating riffles and pools increase the turbulence of the river and
produce a special type of flow known as helicoidal flow. This is a
corkscrew-like movement which spirals from one side of the channel to
another between pools.
○ The helicoidal flow erodes the pools along the channel and increases
deposition on the next inside bend after a pool

● Formation of a meander:
Entrenched/ incised meanders:

● Oxbow lakes:
○ e.g Gambi on River Tana- Kenya
Waterfalls and gorges:

Splash back wears away the soft

rock and eventually the
overhanging, more resistant rock
collapses due to lack of support.
The increased velocity gained by
the water as it falls over the
rapid due to the lack of friction
with the bed further increases
the rate of erosion of the
weaker, downstream band of
rock.

Where a river flows over bands

of rock of differing resistance,
the weaker less resistant rock is
eroded quicker.

Over time this process repeats

causing the waterfall to retreat
 upstream and leave behind a
gorge, a steep sided valley.
Abrasion, cavitation and
hydraulic action at the base of
this overhang due to turbulence
in the flow of the water forms of
a deep plunge pool and
undercutting of the less
resistant rock.
1: Where a river flows over bands of rock of differing resistance, the weaker less
resistant rock is eroded quicker.
2: The increased velocity gained by the water as it falls over the step due to the lack
of friction with the bed further increases the rate of erosion of the weaker,
downstream band of rock.
3: Abrasion and hydraulic action at the base of this overhang due to turbulence in
the flow of the water cause the formation of a deep plunge pool and undercutting of
the less resistant rock.
4: Splash back wears away the soft rock and eventually the overhanging, more
resistant rock collapses due to lack of support.
5: Over time this process repeats causing the waterfall to retreat upstream and
leave behind a gorge a steep sided valley.
● Development of a waterfall over time:
○ Waterfalls occur when there is a sudden change of gradient along the
river
○ The undercutting from hydraulic action and abrasion create the
waterfall
○ This sudden change in gradient can be caused by..
A band of resistant rock strata – resistant limestones at Niagara Falls
○ It can also change because of other factors such as fault scarp
(Gordale, Yorkshire, UK), hanging valley (Glencoyne, Cumbria, UK) or
coastal cliffs

● Gorge: a narrow valley between hills or mountains, typically with steep rocky
walls and a stream running through it.
○ e.g Sleightholme Beck Gorge, County Durham, UK
 ● Development:
○ Waterfalls will eventually migrate upstream. The Niagara Gorge is
11km long due to the retreat of the Niagara Falls
○ This is common when the local rocks are resistant to weathering but
more susceptible to more powerful river erosion. In arid areas where
weathering is less likely to occur gorges are formed from periods of
erosion
○ Rejuvenated rivers will create gorges because of downcutting erosion.
○ Other factors could include antecedent drainage (Rhine Gorge), glacial
overflow channelling (Newtondale, Uk)
○

Levees, floodplains and bluffs

● Floodplain: An area of land adjacent to a stream or river which stretches from

the banks of its channel to the base of the enclosing valley walls, and which
experiences flooding during periods of high discharge. The soils usually
consist of clays, silts, and sands deposited during floods

● Formation:
○ 1: Lateral erosion is caused by meanders eroding on the outside of
their bends, making the valley floor wide flat.
○ 2: River levels rise as a result of heavy rainfall or snowmelt.
○ 3: When the river levels rise and the river bursts its banks, water
spreads out onto the valley floor, increasing the wetted perimeter.
○ 4: Increase in friction on the banks» decreased river velocity»
deposition of the river’s load previously held in suspension will occur.
○ 5: The thin layer of silt deposited increases the fertility of the land. This
causes the floodplain to build up in height» increased risk of flooding.

● The formation of levees:

 ○ 1: Levees are natural embankments of sediment along the banks of a
river. They are formed along rivers that carry a large load and
occasionally flood.
○ 2: In times of flood, water and sediment overflow the channel and flood
onto the floodplain.
○ 3: The water immediately loses velocity and energy as it leaves the
channel due to friction with the floodplain and causes material to be
deposited.
○ 4: Coarser / heavier material is deposited first as the low velocity
cannot transport them
○ 5: Lighter material such as clay is carried onto the floodplain.
○ 6: Repeated flooding causes these banks to get higher, forming levees.

● Bluff: a steep bank or cliff that is formed by river erosion on the outside of a
meander. Usually on a lower course.
Deltas:

● River delta:
○ A river delta is formed at the mouth of a river where the river deposits
the sediment load carried by it and drains into a slower moving or static
body of water.
○ This usually occurs when the river joins a sea, estuary, ocean, lake,
reservoir or in rare cases a slower moving river.
○ The deltas of rivers are usually highly fertile areas

● Conditions needed for a delta to form.

○ Heavily laden (heavy load) river e.g. Nile or Mississippi
○ Standing body of water with negligible (insignificant) currents e.g.
Mediterranean or Gulf of Mexico
○ Salty saline water can enhance deposition - salty water causes clay
particles to flocculate (adhere) together
○ Local geology, type of sediment, sea-level changes, vegetation growth
and human impacts also can be factors

● 3 types of deposition:
○ Bottomset – sea floor, fine material, sea currents
○ Foreset – inclined/sloping layers on top of each other. Saltation moves
material seawards
○ Topset – fine material, part of the river’s floodplain. Built from a
number of distributaries
 Arcuate Delta Cuspate Delta Bird’s-foot
Delta
Fluvial / Wave Dominated by Formed mainly by
Formed by a strong wave river deposition
/ Tidal balance between action, which with minimal
river deposition distributes wave or tidal
and wave activity. sediment evenly influence.
Waves smooth on both sides.
out the shoreline.

How is it Waves push the River channels

This delta has a sediment toward branch into
formed? broad, fan-shaped the center, several narrow
or arc-like forming a pointed distributaries,
structure. It forms or triangular depositing
where river shape. sediment far into
sediment is the water and
deposited, and creating a
wave action structure
spreads and
 smoothens the resembling a
sediment along bird’s foot.
the coast.

Diagram Shows a wide, Displays a Shows elongated

curved shape with narrow, triangular branches
sandy and muddy shape extending extending
areas along the into the sea. outward like bird
edges. toes.

Example Nile Delta, Egypt. Tiber Delta, Italy. Mississippi Delta,

USA.

● Several variables influence the character of a delta:

○ The rate of river deposition
○ The rate of stabilisation by vegetation growth
○ Tidal currents
○ The presence or absence of longshore drift
Human activity (deltas form good farmland when drained

The human impact:

● Urbanisation

Urbanising influence Potential hydrological response

Removal of Decreased evapotranspiration and interception- increased

vegetation and trees stream sedimentation

Initial construction of Decreased infiltration and lowered groundwater table-

houses, streets and increased storm flows and decreased base flows during
culverts dry periods.

Complete Decreased porosity, reducing time of runoff concentration,

development of increasing peak discharges and compressing the time
residential, distribution of the flow: greatly increased volume of runoff
commercial and and flood damage potential
industrial areas
Construction of storm Local relief from flooding- concentration of floodwaters
drains and channel may aggravate flood problems downstream.
improvement

Aspe Human Explanatio

ct Impact n

Evaporation and Decreas Deforestation reduces transpiration, leading to

Evapotranspirati e or lower evapotranspiration. In contrast, agriculture
on increase and irrigation can increase it in arid areas where
dependi water is added artificially. Urbanization can reduce
ng on natural evaporation by replacing vegetation with
activity impermeable surfaces​
.

Interceptio Reduc Deforestation and urban development lower vegetation

n ed cover, decreasing interception. This causes more water to
reach the ground directly, increasing runoff and reducing
water retention within the basin​

Infiltratio Reduc Urbanization creates impermeable surfaces like concrete,

n ed reducing infiltration and increasing surface runoff. Soil
compaction from agriculture or urban activities can also
impede water absorption​
.

Abstracti Overuse Abstraction for domestic, industrial, and agricultural use

on lowers depletes groundwater, reducing river flow and
groundwat sometimes leading to drying up of surface water bodies.
er and Over-abstraction may also cause land subsidence and
river levels salinization in coastal areas​

.
Groundwat Depletion Excessive groundwater extraction lowers the water
er and table, reduces recharge rates, and can introduce
contaminati pollutants or saline water intrusion, especially in
on coastal regions. These changes affect ecosystem
services and water availability for future use​

● Dams and reservoirs: 3 Gorges Dam

○ Dams are built across a river to control flooding downstream and/or
produce hydroelectric power. The water behind the dam is stored in a
reservoir
○ How does it affect the drainage basin?
○
Upstream Downstream
Flooding occurs as the reservoir fills Less likely to flood as discharge is
controlled – less discharge

Discharge Increases and velocity Less deposition reduces fertilityon the

decreases = deposition lower floodplains

Sediment builds up further increasing Habitats and animals becomeextinct

the risk of flooding (Yangtze river dolphin)

Ground is saturated increased risk of

landslides.

Categor Advantag Disadvantag

y es es
Flood Prevents seasonal flooding, Displacement of ecosystems
Contr protecting millions of people and and people upstream due to the
ol vast farmland downstream. creation of the reservoir.
Example: The Yangtze River basin Example: Over 1.3 million
historically suffered from people were relocated during
devastating floods, which the dam the construction of the Three
now mitigates. Gorges Dam​

Hydropow Generates clean, renewable Expensive construction and

er electricity, reducing maintenance. Example: The
dependence on fossil fuels. Three Gorges Dam cost
Example: Three Gorges Dam approximately $37 billion, with
produces 22,500 MW of power, additional costs for
meeting a significant portion maintenance and dealing with
of China's energy needs. environmental consequences​

Econom Facilitates trade and boosts Loss of cultural heritage sites

ic regional economies by submerged by reservoirs.
Benefits improving navigation. Example: Example: Numerous
Larger ships can now travel archaeological and historical
upstream due to locks installed sites were lost during the
at the Three Gorges Dam. construction of the Three
Gorges Dam​

Water Ensures water Alters downstream water flow, potentially leading

Suppl availability for to reduced water availability and soil fertility.
y irrigation and Example: Reduced sediment flow has negatively
urban areas impacted agricultural productivity in areas
during dry downstream of the Three Gorges Dam​
seasons.
Environment Creates habitats in Substantial ecosystem disruption.
al Impact reservoirs that may Example: Fish migration patterns in
support aquatic the Yangtze River have been disrupted,
biodiversity. threatening species like the Chinese
Example: Some fish sturgeon. Additionally, the reservoir
species thrive in has increased the risk of landslides
reservoir conditions. along its banks​

Climate Reduces Methane emissions from decomposing

Change greenhouse gas organic matter in the reservoir. Example: The
Mitigatio emissions by Three Gorges Reservoir contributes to
n replacing methane emissions, especially in warm
coal-fired power climates​
plants.