Work/Job Design

Chapter 7 of textbook: “Operations Management”, Stevenson, Hojati, and

For time study: Cao
Sample size (n), i.e., # of observations

Learning curve:

Mean Observed time (OT) = (Σ observed times of n observations) / n

Normal time (NT) = OT * Performance of worker

Two definitions for standard time (ST)

 Job Design ?
Work/job design involves specifying the content (what) and methods (how)
of work/job.
Job is a set of tasks. Task is set of elements. Element is a set of motions.
Bricklaying job improvement

Management Matters
Managers focus on
reducing the cost.
Efficient vs. Behavioral People don’t work
for money alone.
Standardize, Specialize, etc. Motivate, Recognize, etc.
Effective and Efficient performance of a
job for good work/job design
Structured job (easily recognized input/output, minimal
interference, logical procedure, adequate resources)

Incentive to good performance (occurs quickly

after achievement)

Employee should have necessary

skills/knowledge (if not, provide training)

Physical and Mental (emotional)

capacity to perform the job.
Effective and Efficient performance of a
job for good work/job design
First 4 factors provide
opportunity of 80% First 4 factors are called
performance improvement
environmental factors
of the job

Factor 5 present 15-20% improvement opportunity

Factor 6 present <1% improvement opportunity

 Current Work/Job design is based on
TWO approached
Focuses to narrow scope (concentrate effort on
Efficiency Approach one thing to proficient at it)
Labour cost reduction
(Specialization)
Jobs can be monotonous

People don’t just work for money. Socialization

(belonging), self-actualization, status, and
Behavioral Approach sense of purpose are also important.

Managers need to motivate and inspire

employees (not only using money). Build trust.
Employer Perspective (Advantages and Disadvantages)
Advantages Disadvantages

Less Training Hard to improve

Efficiency Approach quality

(Specialization) High Productivity Low employee moral

High absenteeism,
Low Wages
turnover

Foster better quality More Training

Behavioral Approach Foster Innovation Higher wages

Better employee moral

 Worker Perspective (Advantages and Disadvantages)
Advantages Disadvantages

Low education/skill Monotonous work

Efficiency Approach
Minimum
(Specialization) Responsibility
Little self-fulfillment
Little advancement
Little mental effort
and control over work

Skills and education

Self-fulfillment
needed
Behavioral Approach Better moral Competition
Management Seeking Behavioral Approach has options

Job Enlargement Give worker a larger

portion of the total activity
horizontal loading (more of same work)

Exchange jobs with other

Job Rotation workers

TQM
Increase employee
Job Enrichment responsibility (planning, execution,
control)
vertical loading (more of different work or a promotion)

Self-directed team Autonomous team

 Eurida Mini-case: Behavioral Approach
At Eurida, a dynamic tech company, the implementation of a behavioral management
approach has yielded notable results, featuring job enlargement, job rotation, and job
enrichment strategies. Eurida harnessed job enlargement by diversifying the
responsibilities of assembly line workers, reducing monotony, and boosting employee
engagement. Concurrently, the company introduced job rotation, enabling employees to
switch roles across departments, fostering cross-functional expertise and enhancing
teamwork. Furthermore, Eurida enriched mid-level managers' roles by granting them
increased autonomy and decision-making authority, driving job satisfaction, motivation,
and innovative problem-solving. This holistic approach not only heightened job satisfaction
and engagement but also reduced turnover, stimulated creativity, and ultimately solidified
Eurida's prominent position within the tech industry.

Illustrates the job enlargement, job rotation, and job

enrichment
 Work/Job Design ?

Involves specifying the content (what) and methods (how) of work/job.

Set of related tasks makes up the job/work

E.g., UPS driver job has many tasks:
One task is to carry parcel from truck to customer residence

Task is broken to elements: one element is to pick up parcel

Element broken to motions: one motion is to reach for the parcel
 Methods Analysis

Breaks the job into sequence of

tasks/elements/motions and improve it.

Motion study: of Gilbreth

 Methods Analysis
Identify job to be studied

Gather all pertinent facts about

Worker (Age, Parts Tasks/motions Machines/ Layout,

TQM
gender, skills, Equipment Light,
fitness..) /tools glare,
noise,
humidity

Document and Analyze

Charts
Flow

Question the present method Propose new ones

 Flow Process Chart
Use flow charts to identify potential improvements

Process chart for “Requisition of petty cash” in a company. ps h

st cas
e
any etty tion
o m n p o lu
To ed i n: S ssue rd
o lv itio to i it ca
inv quis ybe red to
re ma ate c it) ead
p o r
h lim nt h
r t
co (wi rtme
e pa
d
Flow Process Chart
Working Conditions

human factors:
skill, safety, physical,
mental, comfort,
posture, …..
Working Conditions

n st
nt gai
sta n n a g ,
on mai : s : n
c c tio ard hti es,
i res Two nts te az r lig vic ger
e qu on. ccide Pr
o h e de n
R nti f a ess
rop ty da
e o
att ses less s
n p fe ed s, ng, g,
• sa ark one epi nin
cau Care azard • m z eke trai t of
H •
o us gh en es
h rou cem ur
• ho for ced
t n o
• e pr
•
Noise and Vibration
 Work Breaks

s as
i n e
l
ec on
d
n cy ars
c ie we
Effi day se
au
d sc .
erio shift
st p rd
Re pwa
u
Level of Illumination

i l ed r
d eta ighe
o re e h tion
e m , th ina
Th work llum
i
t h e el o f
lev
 Ergonomics b to
e jo
Ergonomics involves fitting the job to the worker’s capability and size g th r’s d
tti n rke an
Fi wo lity,
a bi e
cap siz
 Time Studies & Standard Time
Time Study
Determining length of time required to complete a task

Standard Time
The amount of time it should take a qualified worker to
complete a specified task
Working at a sustainable rate

Using given methods, tools, and equipment.

 Time Studies & Standard Time
Determine how long it should take to do a job.

Stopwatch time study

Predetermined time standards

Work sampling
 Stopwatch Time Study
The basic steps in a time study

Define the task to be studied

Determine the number of cycles to

observe. (n)

Time the job/rate worker performance

Compute the standard time

Stopwatch Time Study: Number of Cycles
Number of cycles depend on
Variability of observed times
Desired accuracy
Desired level of confidence for the estimated job time
d of ht
s e n mi g n
all ard lyst ate
l
: S m ed
ry need Tow : Ana calcu ger
a y re l ar
in is d
e
m
li size stu nt to on a size
r
P le wa ased ple
m p b sam
sa
Stopwatch Time Study: Number of Cycles
 Stopwatch Time Study: Example 1
Determine number of observations needed to achieve a specified maximum error, with a
confidence of 95.5 percent. The sample mean of observation is 5.2 minutes. The sample
standard deviation is 1.1 minutes. Find out the sample size (n) assuming 95.45% confidence for:
a) Desired accuracy proportion of +/- 6% of the sample mean
b) A maximum error of 0.40 minute

(a) 2 2
 zs   2.00(1.1) 
n     49.72 (round up to 50 observations)
 ax   .06(5.2) 

(b)  zs 
2
 2.00(1.1) 
2
n     30.25 (round up to 31 observations)
 e  .40 
 Stopwatch Time Study: Standard Time
Requires the calculation of three things

Observed time (OT)

An average of recorded time = Sum of recorded times / number of
observations

Normal time (NT)

Normal time (NT) = Observed time (OT) * Performance rating (PR)
Performance Rating of a person working 10% faster than normal = 1.10 or 110% of normal time.
Working 10% slower = 0.90 or 90% of normal. Use decimal in equation, not percentage.

Standard time (ST)

Standard time (ST) = Normal time (NT) x Allowance Factor (AF)
Stopwatch Time Study: Allowance Factor
(AC) in Standard Time (ST)
Standard time (ST) is the time a worker should take to
perform a task if there are no delays or rest breaks
Factors such as delay, and rest breaks are considered by using an
allowance for these factors
Allowance can be used on either task time or workday.

Standard time = NT * (1 + Allowance task time) Standard time = NT/(1-Allowanceworkday)

Allowance Factor (AF) = (1+Allowance job or task) Allowance Factor (AF) = 1/(1-Allowance work or workday)

Like “markup”. Usually specified for each job. Like “margin”. Usually specified for each workday or work.
Allowance is a % of NT. Work or workday is set of jobs. Allowance is a % of ST.
 Stopwatch Time Study: Allowance Factor
(AF) in Standard Time (ST)
For each job or task:

Standard time = NT * (1 + Allowancetasktime) Used when

different tasks
ST = NT + NT * Allowance = NT * (1 + Allowance)
have different
allowances

For workday or work (i.e., all jobs):

Standard time = NT/(1-Allowanceworkday) Used when
different tasks
ST = NT + ST * Allowance = NT / (1 – Allowance) have similar
allowances
 Stopwatch Time Study: Example 2
You want to determine the standard time for a job. A worker produced 20
items in an 8-hour day. As the worker was nervous under observation, it was
estimated that the employee worked about 10% faster than normal.
Allowances are 25% of the workday. What are the normal and standard times
to produce one item?
Observed Time =Sum of recorded times / number of observations = 8 hrs/20 units = 0.4 hr

Normal time (NT) = Observed time (OT) * Performance rating (PR) = 0.4*1.1 = 0.44 hr = 26.4
min

Standard time = NT/(1-Allowanceworkday) = 26.4 min / (1-0.25) = 35.2 minutes

 Stopwatch Time Study: Work Sampling
Work sampling is a technique for estimating the proportion
a worker spends on each task or is idle.
Doesn’t involve timing a task or continuous observation of the
task.
Instead, an observer makes brief observations of a worker at random intervals
(or notes the nature of the task)

Use for non-repetitive

jobs (e.g., secretary work)
 Learning Curves
(a.k.a. “improvement curve”)
Chapter 7 Suppl. of textbook: “Operations Management”, Stevenson, Hojati, and Cao

When output doubles, the worker hours per unit for last item decreases to L%  L is learning rate.

E.g., Suppose L = 80%. If 1st unit takes 10 min  2nd unit takes 8 min  4th unit takes 8*0.8=6.4min 
8th unit takes 6.4*0.8=5.12 min during the learning state. In steady state, time remains same.
 Learning Curves (a.k.a. “improvement curve”)
Main concept: time required to perform a task
decreases with increasing repetitions

oe d
s ti s le nt
e g an
s a e me

s
m ss
les com ve
be pro
Im
When unit cost is used instead of
unit time, termed an experience Steep
curve, or progress function
Less
Steep
 Learning Curves
Crawford’s model:
The learning curve model using unit time.

o n
s is
o c u ht’s
Wright’s model: ur f rig
O e W del
h
mo average time.
The learning curve model usingtcumulative

Learning percentage
The percentage decrease in unit time that results from doubling
production.
 Learning Curves: Scallop Effect
Due to major changes product redesign or new
equipment
This can cause a temporary increase in unit time
until workers adjust to the change

Scallop Effect

Figure 7S-2

© 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited. All rights reserved. 35

Learning Curves: Determining Unit Times (2
approaches)

Using Formulas a b c

a b

Using Table of Values

a1 b1
a2 b2
 Learning Curves: Formula Approach
b
Tn T1 n
where :
Tn Time for n - th unit
T1 Time for first unit
 learning percent 
b ln   ln 2 Tables are given for multiplication factor nb.
 100 
ln stands for natural logarithm 
 Learning Curves: Formula Approach Example 3
An airplane manufacturer is negotiating a contract for the production of 20 small jets. The
initial jet required the equivalent of 400 days of direct labour. The learning percentage is 80
percent. How much time will the 20th jet take to produce?

T20 = 400(20ln.8/ln 2) = 400(.3812) = 152.5 days

 Learning Curves: Using Table Approach
Table gives:
• Unit value time
factor for # of
units produced in
the sequence
(unit number)

• Total
(cumulative) time
factor
for n units
Learning Curves: Using Table Approach
 Learning Curves: Formula Approach Example 4
An airplane manufacturer is negotiating a contract for the production of 20 small jets. The
initial jet required the equivalent of 400 days of direct labour. The learning percentage is 80
percent. What’s the expected total direct labour days for all 20 jets?
Total time = 10.485

Expected total direct labour days =

400* 10.485 = 4,194 days
Learning Curves: Learning Percentage
Estimate the learning percentage by fitting a power
function to the data

b
Learning percentage 100 2
Where b = ln(Learning percentage/100)/ln 2
 Learning Curves: Example 5
Use learning curves to predict the number of units (n) that a trainee needs to
produce to achieve a unit time of 6 minutes if the trainee took 10 minutes to
produce the first unit and a learning curve of 90 percent is expected (using
formula and table)

Tn equal to the specified time of 6 minutes

T1 equal to the specified time of 10 minutes

b = ln(0.9)/ln(2) = -0.15
 Learning Curves: Example 5
Using Formula

Tn =6 minutes b = -0.15

T1 =10 minutes

[ ln (𝑇 𝑛 ) − ln ( 𝑇 1 )] / 𝑏
𝑛=𝑒 n = 29
 Learning Curves: Example 5
Using Table: Time factor is
Tn/T1 =6/10 = 0.6

At time factor approximately of

0.599, we have n = 29

29 units required to achieve six

minutes

10 minutes * 0.599 = 5.99 minutes

Learning Curves: Practical Applications (Labour
planning, purchasing/selling, labour training)
Learning Curves: Caution and Criticism
Learning % may differ from organization to organization

Projections based on learning curves should be regarded as

approximations

If time estimates are based on the time for the first unit, need
considerable care to ensure validity of this time

Learning curves do not apply to mass production situations (with

short cycle times and imperceptible time decreases)

Users of learning curves sometimes fail to include carryover

effects (previous or similar experiences)
 Job Design: Example 6
Using the data below answer the following questions: a) For an allowance of
10% of task time, determine a standard time for the task. b)Determine the
number of observations (n) required to estimate the first element within 4%
of the true value with a confidence interval of 98%. c) How many observations
are needed to estimate the mean time of Element C to within 0.10 minutes of
the actual value with confidence interval of 90%.
A task consists of three elements A, B, C in sequence.

OTA = (1.4 + 1.42 + 1.39 + 1.38 + 1.41)/5 = 1.4

 Job Design : Example 6a
Using the data below answer the following questions: a) For an allowance of
10% of task time, determine a standard time for the task. b)Determine the
number of observations required to estimate the first element within 4% of
the true value with a confidence interval of 98%. c) How many observations
are needed to estimate the mean time of Element C to within 0.10 minutes of
the actual value with confidence interval of 90%.

average
 Job Design : Example 6a
Using the data below answer the following questions: a) For an allowance of
10% of task time, determine a standard time for the task. b)Determine the
number of observations required to estimate the first element within 4% of
the true value with a confidence interval of 98%. c) How many observations
are needed to estimate the mean time of Element C to within 0.10 minutes of
the actual value with confidence interval of 90%.

A task consists of three elements

A, B, C in sequence.

Standard Time
allowance of 10% of task time for Task =
1.39 + 2.59 +
1.82 = 5.80
minutes
 Job Design : Example 6b
Using the data below answer the following questions: b)Determine the number
of observations required to estimate the first element (i.e., element A) within
4% of the true value with a confidence interval of 98% (standard deviation is
0.0158).

Element A’s sample mean = 1.4, i.e., OT

 Job Design : Example 6c
Using the data below answer the following questions: c) How many the
b)Determine
observations are neededrequired
number of observations to estimate the mean
to estimate time
the firstofelement
Elementwithin
C to within
4% of
0.10 minutes
the true valueofwith
theaactual valueinterval
confidece with confidence
of 98%. interval of 90% (standard
deviation is 0.079).
 Learning Curves: Example 7a
A contractor intends to bid on installing 30 in-ground swimming pools. After reviewing time
records from a similar type of activity, the contractor is convinced that an 85 percent
learning curve is appropriate. He estimates that the first pool will take his crew eight days
to install. How many days should the contractor schedule for: a. The first 10 pools?
 Learning Curves: Example 7b
A contractor intends to bid on installing 30 in-ground swimming pools. After reviewing time
records from a similar type of activity, the contractor is convinced that an 85 percent
learning curve is appropriate. He estimates that the first pool will take his crew eight days
to install. How many days should the contractor schedule for: b. The second 10 pools?;
 Learning Curves: Example 7c
A contractor intends to bid on installing 30 in-ground swimming pools. After reviewing time
records from a similar type of activity, the contractor is convinced that an 85 percent
learning curve is appropriate. He estimates that the first pool will take his crew eight days
to install. How many days should the contractor schedule for: b. The final 10 pools?
Learning Curves Table
 Learning Curves: Example 8
A lot of 20 units is to be produced. Labour cost is $8.50 per hour. Setup cost is $50 and
material cost is $20 per unit. The learning percentage is expected to be 90 percent.
Overhead is charged at the rate of 50 percent of total labour, material, and setup cost.
Determine the average unit cost for the lot, given that the first unit took five hours to
complete.

Need to know how long did it take for the twenty units to be made. From
table, the total time factor is 14.608
 Learning Curves: Example 8
A lot of 20 units is to be produced. Labour cost is $8.50 per hour. Setup cost is $50 and material
cost is $20 per unit. The learning percentage is expected to be 90 percent. Overhead is charged
at the rate of 50 percent of total labour, material, and setup cost. Determine the average unit
cost for the lot, given that the first unit took five hours to complete.

Set-up cost for batch of 20 units

 Learning Curves: Example 9
The fifth unit of a 25-unit job took 14.5 hours to complete. If a 90 percent learning curve is
appropriate: a. How long should it take to complete the last unit? b. How long should it take to
complete the 10th unit? c. Estimate the average time for all 25 units.

Use table to
get the unit
time factors
 Learning Curves: Example 9b
The fifth unit of a 25-unit job took 14.5 hours to complete. If a 90 percent learning curve is
appropriate: a. How long should it take to complete the last unit? b. How long should it take to
complete the 10th unit? c. Estimate the average time for all 25 units.

Use table to
get the unit
time factors
 Learning Curves: Example 9c
The fifth unit of a 25-unit job took 14.5 hours to complete. If a 90 percent learning curve is
appropriate: c. Estimate the average time for all 25 units.

Use table to
get the total
time factors
More Exercises
 Example A
An initial time study resulted in an average observed time of 2.2 minutes per cycle, and a
standard deviation of 0.3 minutes per cycle. The performance rating was 1.20. What
sample size (n = ?), including the 20 observations in the initial study, would be necessary to
have a confidence of 95.44 percent that the observed time was within 4 percent of the true
value?

Confidence interval of 95.44 means (95.44/2) = 47.72

on each side of the normal distribution curve
Z = 2.0
 Example A
An initial time study resulted in an average observed time of 2.2 minutes per cycle, and a
standard deviation of 0.3 minutes per cycle. The performance rating was 1.20. What
sample size, would be necessary to have a confidence of 95.44 percent that the observed
time was within 4 percent of the true value?
Z = 2.0 s = Std. dev. = 0.3 x-bar = 2.2 a = 0.04

n = [(2*0.3)/(0.04*2.2)]2 = 46.49 = 47 (rounded-up)

 Example B
What’s the observed timing in minutes of the task below
OBSERVATION 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
TIME (SECONDS) 17 18 15 14 13 15 16 12

Observed Time =Sum of recorded times / number of observations = 120/8 = 15 seconds

= 0.25 minutes
 Example C
If the person observed worked at a pace that is 80 percent of
normal, and if the appropriate allowance for this task is 25 percent
of job time, what should be the standard time?
OBSERVATION 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
TIME (SECONDS) 17 18 15 14 13 15 16 12

Observed Time =Sum of recorded times / number of observations = 120/8 = 15 seconds

Normal time (NT) = Observed time (OT) * Performance rating (PR) = 15*0.8 = 12 seconds

Standard time = NT*(1+Allowancetask) = 12sec * (1+0.25) = 15 seconds

 Example D
The fifth unit of a 10-unit job took five hours to complete. The sixth unit has been worked
on for two hours but is not yet finished. Estimate the additional amount of time needed to
finish the 10-unit job if the work has a 75 percent learning percentage.

n=5 (for
work that has been
done)
T5 = 5 hrs P = 75% 𝑇 𝑛=𝑇 1 ∗𝑛 𝑏
Two hours have elapsed for 6th unit
Let’s find T1 and use it then to find every other T
𝑇𝑛 𝑇5
𝑇 1= =
𝑛𝑏 𝑛𝑏
To get nb, we need to use table for n=5, to nb = 0.513
 Example D
The fifth unit of a 10-unit job took five hours to complete. The sixth unit has been worked
on for two hours, but is not yet finished. Estimate the additional amount of time needed to
finish the 10-unit job if the work has a 75 percent learning percentage.
n=5 T5 = 5 hrs P = 75% nb = 0.513 𝑇 𝑛=𝑇 1 ∗𝑛 𝑏
(for
work that has been
done)

Let’s find T1 and use it then to find every other T

= = 9.75 hrs
 Example D
The fifth unit of a 10-unit job took five hours to complete. The sixth unit has been worked
on for two hours, but is not yet finished. Estimate the additional amount of time needed to
finish the 10-unit job if the work has a 75 percent learning percentage.
n=6 (for
T5 = 5 hrs P = 75%
work that has been
done) T1 = 9.75 hrs

Let’s find T6
𝑇 𝑛=𝑇 1 ∗𝑛 𝑏
nb = 0.475

= 9.7466*0.475 = 4.63 hrs

 Example D
The fifth unit of a 10-unit job took five hours to complete. The sixth unit has been worked
on for two hours, but is not yet finished. Estimate the additional amount of time needed to
finish the 10-unit job if the work has a 75 percent learning percentage.
T5 = 5 hrs P = 75% T1 = 9.75 hrs 𝑇 𝑛=𝑇 1 ∗𝑛 𝑏
Repeat for other T’s
 Example D
The fifth unit of a 10-unit job took five hours to complete. The sixth unit has been worked
on for two hours, but is not yet finished. Estimate the additional amount of time needed to
finish the 10-unit job if the work has a 75 percent learning percentage.

T5 = 5 hrs P = 75% T1 = 9.75 hrs 𝑇 𝑛=𝑇 1 ∗𝑛𝑏

Finally, when calculating the time needed, which is from day 6 to day 10,
make sure you subtract the two hours; you must exclude the two hours
already spent.

T -2 = (4.63 – 2) + 4.35 + 4.11 + 3.92 + 3.75 = 18.76 hrs.

6-10
Learning Curves Table
 Example E
Estimate the number of repetitions each of the workers listed below will require to achieve
a standard time of 25 minutes per unit. Times of the first two repetitions (in minutes) are
given below.
Tn = 25 min

We need to calculate the b for each worker.

Trainee T1 T2 P/100 = T2  T1 b = ln(P/100)  ln(2)
Tracy 36 31 .86 ln .86  ln 2 = -.2176
Darren 40 36 .90 ln .90  ln 2= -.152
Lynn 37 30 .81 ln .81  ln 2 = -0.304

Trainee T1 ln(T1) ln(25) – ln(T1) [ln(25) – ln(T1)] / b n = e[ln(7) – ln(T1)] / b

Tracy 36 3.5835 -.3646 1.6756 5.34  6
Darren 40 3.6889 -.4700 3.092 22.02  23
Lynn 37 3.6109 -.3920 1.2895 3.63  4
 Example F
For the following data, calculate the average time, normal time for each element. Then,
calculate the standard time assuming an allowance factor of 15% of workday.
Normal time (NT) = Observed time (OT) * Performance rating (PR)

Standard time = NT/(1-Allowanceworkday)

Sum=4.43
 Example G
Estimate the time it will take to complete the fourth unit of a multi-unit job involving a
large assembly if the initial unit required 80 hours and the learning percentage is:
a. 72 percent; b. 87 percent.; c. 95 percent.
Table doesn’t have these percentages. Use the formulas.
 Example H
A subcontractor is responsible for outfitting six ships with new electronics. Four of the six
ships have been completed in a total of 600 hours. If the task has a 75 percent learning
curve, how long should it take to finish the last two units?

Using the table