Lymphatic and

immune system
LYMPH

• What is lymph ?

clear watery fluid, it is composition is similar to plasma with less protein

content and it is identical to the interstitial fluid.
 Return of plasma proteins to the blood.

24-
3

Functions Returns of excess tissue fluid to the blood, 3 L daily to

prevent oedema.

of the Remove the products of metabolism, phagocytosis

products, destroy cells, toxic and noxious substances
Lymphatic and dead and live microbes from the cells of the body.

System Protect the body from foreign antigen and supply the
body with immunity.

Absorption of fat and, fat soluble vitamins in the small

intestine into the lymphatic vessels of the villi.
Lymph

Lymphatic Vessels
• Lymphatic Capillaries
• Lymphatic Vessels Components
of the
• Lymphatic Trunks
• Lymphatic Ducts

Lymphatic Organs Lymphatic

System
• Thymus
• Lymph Nodes
• Spleen
• Tonsils

Lymphatic cells
 • Lymphatic capillaries : tiny closed ended tubes

Lymph
extend into interstitial spaces forming networks
parallel to blood capillaries, but more permeable.

Vessels
• Lymphatic vessels
• Lymphatic trunks –
• Lymphatic ducts –
Lymph
Vessels
 Factores assist the flow of lymph
Lymphatic pump:
• The muscle tissue in the wall of large lymphatic vessels has an intrinsic ability to contract rhythmically (the
lymphatic pump)

Skeletal muscle pump

• Contraction of the adjacent skeletal muscles, compress the lymphatic vessels and assists the movement of
lymp inside lymphatic vessels. Backflow of lymph prevented due to presence of valves in these vessels.

Respiratory pump
• Flow pf lymph is maintained by pressure changes that occur during inspiration (breathing in).
• Lymph flows from abdominal cavity, where the pressure is higher, towards the thoracic cavity, where the
pressure is valves prevent the backflow of lymph.

Tissue fluid pressure.

Pulsation of adjacent large arteries compress the lymphatic vessels.

 Primary organs

• Red bone marrow

• Thymus gland
LYMPHATIC
ORGANS Secondary organs

• Lymph nodes
• Lymph nodules
• Spleen
 Filtration and phagocytosis

• Macrophages in the nodes engulf

Function of and destroy foreign substances
damaged cells and other cellular
lymph debris.

nodes Proliferation of lymphocytes

• Activated T and B lymphocytes

multiply in lymph nodes.
What • The mucosa that lines the small
intestine is covered with fingerlike
lymphatic projections called villi. There are
blood capillaries and special lymph
structure capillaries, called lacteals, in the
absorbs center of each villus. The blood
capillaries absorb most nutrients,
lipids in the but the fats and fat-soluble
vitamins are absorbed by the
intestine? lacteals.
Spleen Function
• Phagocytosis
• For the older red blood cells by
phagocytic macrophages.
• Erythropoiesis
• Blood formation during fetal
live.
• Storage of blood
• In hemorrhage the spleen can
retune large part of this blood
to the circulation
• Immune response
• Contain large number of
activated T and B lymphocytes.
THYMUS Function

Activation of T-lymphocytes by
the thymosin hormone which
stimulate the maturation of T-
lymphocytes.
• Definition
• Peyer’s patches are groupings of
lymphoid follicles in the mucus
membrane that lines your small intestine.
Lymphoid follicles are small organs in
your lymphatic system that are similar to What Are
lymph nodes.
• Peyer’s patches play an important role in
Peyer’s
immune surveillance of materials within Patches?
your digestive system. Immune
surveillance refers to the process by
which your immune system recognizes
and destroys potential pathogens
Peyer’s Patches Function

Response to infection: Peyer’s patches

contain a variety of immune cells,
including macrophages, dendritic cells,
T cells, and B cells.
Oral immune tolerance: Peyer’s patches
are frequently sampling material within
your small intestine, so they likely play a
role in determining which substances
require an immune response.
What is
• The appendix has been found
physiological to play a role in mammalian
role of mucosal immune function. It is
believed to be involved in
appendix? extrathymically derived T-
lymphocytes and B-lymphocyte-
mediated immune responses. It is
also said to produce early defences
that help prevent serious
infections in humans.
• Disease-causing agents, also called
pathogens, can produce infections within
the body.

• The body has two lines of defense against Body

pathogens: nonspecific defenses that Defenses
guard against any pathogen, and specific
defenses (immunity) that mount a Against
response against a very specific target. Infection
Body Defense Against Disease

Specific defenses are Nonspecific and

carried out by specific defenses work
lymphocytes that together to protect
recognize a specific the body against
invader. infection.
 • Species Resistance
Innate • A species is resistant to diseases that affect
(Nonspecific) other species because it has a unique
chemical environment or temperature that
Defenses fails to provide the conditions required by the
pathogens of another species.
 • Mechanical Barriers
• The unbroken skin and mucous membranes of
the body create mechanical barriers that prevent
Innate the entry of certain pathogens.
(Nonspecific) • Mechanical barriers represent the body’s first
line of defense.
Defenses
 • Chemical Barriers
• Chemical barriers, such as the highly acidic
and caustic environment provided by
gastric juice, or lyzozyme in tears, kill many
pathogens.
Innate • Interferons, hormone-like peptides that
serve as antiviral substances, are produced
(Nonspecific) by cells when they are infected with
viruses and induce nearby cells to produce
Defenses antiviral enzymes that protect them from
infection.
 • Fever
• Fever offers powerful protection against
infection by interfering with the proper
conditions that promote bacterial growth.
• During fever, the amount of iron in the
Innate blood is reduced, and thus fewer nutrients
are available to support the growth of
(Nonspecific) pathogens.

Defenses • Phagocytic cells attack with greater vigor

when the temperature rises.
 • Inflammation
Innate Inflammation, a tissue response to a
pathogen, is characterized by redness,
(Nonspecific) swelling, heat, and pain.

Defenses
 • Major actions that occur during an
inflammatory response include: dilation of
Innate blood vessels; increase of blood volume in
affected areas; invasion of white blood
(Nonspecific) cells into the affected area; and
appearance of fibroblasts and their
Defenses production of a sac around the area.
 • Phagocytosis
The most active phagocytes are
neutrophils and monocytes; these leave
Innate the bloodstream at areas of injury by
diapedesis.
(Nonspecific) • Neutrophils engulf smaller particles;
monocytes attack larger ones.
Defenses
 • Monocytes give rise to macrophages,
which become fixed in various tissues.
• Monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils
Innate constitute the mononuclear phagocytic
system.
(Nonspecific) • Phagocytosis also removes foreign
particles from the lymph.
Defenses
Adaptive
(Specific) • Immunity refers to the response mounted
by the body against specific, recognized
Defenses or foreign molecules.

Immunity
 • Antigens
• Antigens are generally larger molecules
that elicit an immune response.
• Sometimes small molecules called haptens
Adaptive combine with larger molecules and
become antigenic.
(Specific) • Before birth, the body makes an inventory
Defenses or of "self" proteins and other large
molecules.
Immunity
Adaptive • Lymphocyte Origins
During fetal development, red bone
(Specific) marrow releases lymphocytes into
circulation, 70-80% of which become T
Defenses or lymphocytes (T cells) and the remainder of
which become B lymphocytes (B cells).
Immunity
 • Undifferentiated lymphocytes that reach
Adaptive the thymus become T cells; B cells are
thought to mature in the bone marrow.
(Specific) • Both B and T cells reside in lymphatic
Defenses or organs.

Immunity
 • Lymphocyte Functions
• T cells attack foreign, antigen-bearing cells,
Adaptive such as bacteria, by direct cell-to-cell
(Specific) contact, providing cell-mediated immunity.
• T cells also secrete cytokines
Defenses or (lymphokines) that enhance cellular
response to antigens.
Immunity
 • T cells may also secrete toxins that kill
target cells, or produce growth-inhibiting
Adaptive factors or interferon to interfere with
viruses and tumor cells.
(Specific) • B cells attack pathogens by differentiating
Defenses or into plasma cells that secrete antibodies
(immunoglobulins).
Immunity
Adaptive
• Body fluids attack and destroy specific
(Specific) antigens or antigen-bearing particles
Defenses or through antibody-mediated immunity
also called humoral immune response.
Immunity
Adaptive • T Cells and the Cellular Immune
Response
(Specific) • T cell activation requires the presence
Defenses or of an antigen-presenting cell, such as a
B cell or macrophage, that has already
Immunity encountered the antigen.
 • In order for a helper T cell to become
Adaptive activated, it must first encounter a
macrophage displaying the antigen on
(Specific) its major histocompatibility complex
Defenses or (MHC) proteins; if the antigen fits the
helper T cell's antigen receptor, it
Immunity becomes activated and stimulates B
cells to produce antibodies.
 • Cytotoxic T cells continually monitor
the body's cells, recognizing and
eliminating tumor cells and virus-
Adaptive infected cells by release of proteins,
(Specific) cutting holes, and by other means.
• Cytotoxic T cells become activated
Defenses or when an antigen binds to its receptors.
• Memory T cells provide a no-delay
Immunity response to any future exposure to the
same antigen
Adaptive • B Cells and the Humoral Immune
Response
(Specific) • A B cell may become activated and
produce a clone of cells when its
Defenses or antigen receptor encounters its
matching antigen, but most B cells
Immunity need helper T cells for activation.
Adaptive • When a helper T cell encounters a B
(Specific) cell that has itself encountered an
antigen, the helper T cell releases
Defenses or cytokines that activate the B cell so
that it can divide and form a clone.
Immunity
Adaptive • Some of the B cells become plasma
cells, producing and secreting
(Specific) antibodies.
Defenses or • Like T cells, some of the B cells
become memory cells to respond to
Immunity future encounters with the antigen.
 • Types of Antibodies
Adaptive • There are five major types of
antibodies (immunoglobulins) that
(Specific) constitute the gamma globulin
fraction of the plasma.
Defenses or • IgG is in tissue fluid and plasma and
defends against bacterial cells,
Immunity viruses, and toxins and activates
complement.
 • IgA is in exocrine gland secretions (breast
milk, saliva, tears) and defends against
bacteria and viruses
• IgM is found in plasma and activates
Adaptive complement and reacts with blood
cells during transfusions.
(Specific) • IgD is found on the surface of most B
lymphocytes and functions in B cell
Defenses or activation.
Immunity • IgE is found in exocrine gland secretions
and promotes allergic reactions
 • Antibody Actions
• Antibodies can react to antigens in
Adaptive three ways: direct attack, activation of
complement, or stimulation of changes
(Specific) in areas that help prevent the spread
of the pathogens.
Defenses or • Direct attack methods include
Immunity agglutination, precipitation, and
neutralization of antigens.
Adaptive
• The activation of complement can
(Specific) produce opsonization, chemotaxis,
Defenses or inflammation, or lysis in target cells or
antigens.
Immunity
Adaptive • Immune Responses
• When B or T cells become activated
(Specific) the first time, their actions
Defenses or constitute a primary immune response,
after which some cells remain as
Immunity memory cells.
 • If the same antigen is encountered
Adaptive again, more numerous memory cells
can mount a more rapid response,
(Specific) known as the secondary immune
response.
Defenses or • The ability to produce a secondary
Immunity immune response may be long-lasting.
Adaptive (Specific) Defenses or Immunity

• Practical Classification of Immunity

• Naturally acquired active immunity occurs after exposure to the
antigen itself.

– Artificially acquired active immunity

occurs through the use of vaccines, without
the person becoming ill from the disease.
Adaptive (Specific) Defenses or Immunity

• Artificially acquired passive immunity involves the injection of

gamma globulin containing antibodies and is short-lived.
• Naturally acquired passive immunity occurs as antibodies are passed
from mother to fetus and is short-lived.
Adaptive (Specific) Defenses or Immunity

• Allergic Reactions
• Allergic reactions to allergens are excessive immune responses that
may lead to tissue damage.
• Delayed-reaction allergy results from repeated exposure to substances
that cause inflammatory reactions in the skin.
Adaptive (Specific) Defenses or Immunity

• Immediate-reaction allergy is an inherited ability to overproduce IgE.

• During allergic reactions, mast cells release histamine and leukotrienes,
producing a variety of effects.
• Allergy mediators sometimes flood the body, resulting in anaphylactic
shock, a severe form of immediate-reaction allergy.