MATERIALS SELECTION &

FABRICATION
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO
CORROSION
 Corrosion of metals applies to chemical
or electrochemical attack.
 The deterioration of plastics and other

non metallic materials is essentially

physio-chemical rather then
electrochemical and results in swelling,
crazing, cracking, softening and
decomposition.
 Corrosive action can also be initiated by
galvanic action, impingement, cavitation,
or hydrogen attack. In galvanic corrosion,
an electric potential can be set up between
two different metals in contact with a
conducting fluid.
 The corrosion rate of most metals is
affected by pH. Metals such as aluminum
and zinc dissolve rapidly in either acidic or
basic solutions.
 Oxidizing agents are powerful accelerators

of corrosion. But oxidizing agents may

accelerate the corrosion of one class of
metals and retard the corrosion of another
class of materials by the formation of a
protective oxide on the surface. This
property of chromium is responsible for
principal corrosion-resisting characteristics
of the stainless steels.
 The rate of corrosion tends to increase with rising
temperature.
 Structural corrosion includes at least three

different types of material damage

 Graphitic corrosion usually involves gray cast

iron in which the metal is converted to graphite

mixed with iron corrosion products.
 Dezincification is corrosion of a brass alloy

containing zinc in which the principal product of

corrosion is metallic copper.
 In biological corrosion the metabolic activity of

microorganisms can either directly or indirectly

cause deterioration of a metal by corrosion
processes
 COMBATING CORROSION
 Simple changes in environment may take an appreciable
difference in corrosion of metals and need to be considered
as means of combating corrosion.
 Oxygen is an important factor and its removal or addition
can result in marked changes in corrosion. The treatment of
boiler feed water to remove oxygen generally reduces
corrosiveness of water on the chamber and piping.
 The use of inhibitor as additives to corrosive environment to
decease corrosion of metal is another means of combating
corrosion. Inhibitors are effective when they can influence
the cathode or anode area reaction. i.e chromates,
phosphates and silicates for minimizing iron and steel
corrosion.
 Cathodic protection is widely used in protection of
underground pipes and tanks from external soil corrosion
and in water system to protect water storage tanks and
offshore structures.
 The use nonmetallic castings and linings
materials in combination with steel or
materials has often proved to be an
economical solution for combating corrosion.
 The cladding of steel with an alloy is another

approach to the corrosion problem. For mild

environment ,steel can also be coated with
zinc , cadmium , aluminum or lead.
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
 American iron and steel institute (AISI) has set up
a series of standards for steel products.
 Ferrous metals & alloys:

 Steel

 Stainless steel

 Nonferrous metals & alloys:

 Nickel & its alloys

 Aluminum & its alloys

 Copper & its alloys

 Lead & alloys

 Tantalum

 Titanium

 Zirconium
 Inorganic non metals
 Glass & glassed sheet

 Stoneware & porcelain

 Brick & cement materials

 Organic nonmetals

 Plastics

 Rubber & elastomers

 Carbon & graphite

 Wood

 Low & High temperature materials

FERROUS METALS & ALLOYS
 Steel:
 Carbon steel is most commonly used material in
chemical process industry despite its somewhat
limited corrosion resistance.
 It is used mostly with organic chemicals and
neutral or basic aqueous solutions at moderate
temperatures.
 Because of its availability, low cost, ease of
fabrication even in situations with corrosion rates
of 0.13 to 0.5 mm/yr.
 Low alloy steels contains components to improve
mechanical & corrosion resistance properties.
 Stainless steel:
 More than 70 standard types of stainless steel and
many special alloys.
 These steels are produced in wrought form (AISI)
types and as cast alloys( ACI types).
 There are three groups of stainless steel alloys,
namely martensitic, ferritic and austenitic.
 Table 10-3 outlines information regarding classes
of stainless steels.
 Table 10-4 presents characteristics and typical
applications of various types of stainless steel
 Table 10-5 indicates resistance of stainless steels
to oxidation in air.
NON FERROUS METALS & ALLOYS:
 Nickel & its alloys: Nickel exhibits high corrosion
resistance to most alkalies. Nickel-clad steel is used
extensively for equipment in the production of caustic
soda and alkalies.
 The strength and hardness of nickel is almost as great
as that of carbon steel, and the metal can be fabricated
easily. In general, oxidizing conditions promote the
corrosion of nickel, and reducing conditions retard it.
 Monel, an alloy of nickel containing 67 percent nickel
and 30 percent copper, is often used in the food
industries. This alloy is stronger than nickel and has
better corrosion-resistance properties than either copper
or nickel.
 Another important nickel alloy is Inconel (77 percent
nickel and 15 percent chromium). The presence of
chromium in this alloy increases its resistance to
oxidizing conditions.
 Aluminum & its alloys:
 The lightness and relative ease of fabrication of
aluminum and its alloys are factors favoring the
use of these materials. Aluminum resists attack
by acids because a surface film of inert
hydrated aluminum oxide is formed. This film
adheres to the surface and offers good
protection unless materials which can remove
the oxide, such as halogen acids or alkalies, are
present.
 The corrosion resistance of aluminum and its
alloys tends to be very sensitive to trace
contamination. Very small amounts of metallic
mercury, heavy metal ions, or chloride ions can
frequently cause rapid failure under conditions
which otherwise would be fully acceptable.
 Copper & its alloys:
 Copper is relatively inexpensive, possesses fair mechanical
strength, and can be fabricated easily into a wide variety of
shapes. Although it shows little tendency to dissolve in
nonoxidizing acids, it is readily susceptible to oxidation. Copper
is resistant to atmospheric moisture or oxygen because a
protective coating composed primarily of copper oxide is
formed on the surface. The oxide, however, is soluble in most
acids, and thus copper is not a suitable material of construction
when it must contact any acid in the presence of oxygen or
oxidizing agents.
 Copper exhibits good corrosion resistance to strong alkalies,
with the exception of ammonium hydroxide. At room
temperature it can handle sodium and potassium hydroxide of
all concentrations. It resists most organic solvents and aqueous
solutions of organic acids.
 Copper alloys, such as brass, bronze, admiralty, and
Muntz metals, can exhibit better corrosion resistance and
better mechanical properties than pure copper. In general, high-
zinc alloys should not be used with acids or alkalies owing to
the possibility of dezincification. Most of the low-zinc alloys are
resistant to hot dilute alkalies.
 Lead & alloys:
 Pure lead has low creep and fatigue resistance, but
its physical properties can be improved by the
addition of small amounts of silver, copper,
antimony, or tellurium.
 Lead-clad equipment is in common use in many
chemical plants. The excellent corrosion-resistance
properties of lead are caused by the formation of
protective surface coatings. If the coating is one of
the highly insoluble lead salts, such as sulfate,
carbonate, or phosphate, good corrosion resistance
is obtained. Little protection is offered, however, if
the coating is a soluble salt, such as nitrate, acetate,
or chloride.
 As a result, lead shows good resistance to sulfuric
acid and phosphoric acid, but it is susceptible to
attack by acetic acid and nitric acid.
 Tantalum:
 The physical properties of tantalum are similar
to those of mild steel, with the exception that its
melting point (2996°C) is much higher. It is
ordinarily used in the pure form, and it is readily
fabricated into many different shapes.
 The corrosion-resistance properties of tantalum
resemble those of glass. The metal is attacked
by hydrofluoric acid, by hot concentrated
alkalies, and by materials containing free sulfur
trioxide.
 It is resistant to all other acids and is often used
for equipment involving contact with
hydrochloric acid.
 Titanium:
 Because of its strength and medium weight,
titanium has become increasingly important as a
construction material.
 Corrosion resistance is superior in oxidizing and
mild reducing media.
 Its general resistance to seawater is excellent
 Titanium is resistant to nitric acid at all
concentrations except with fuming nitric.
 Disadvantages of forming and welding are limits
for its general use.
INORGANIC NONMETALS:
 Glass, carbon, stoneware, brick, rubber, plastics,
and wood are common examples of nonmetals
used as materials of construction.
 Many of the nonmetals have low structural
strength. Consequently, they are often used in
the form of linings or coatings bonded to metal
supports. For example, glass-lined or rubber-lined
equipment has many applications in the
chemical industries.
 Glass & glassed steel:
 Glass has excellent resistance and is subject to
attack only by hydrofluoric acid and hot alkaline
solutions.
 It is particularly suitable for processes which have
critical contamination levels.
 A chief drawback is its brittleness and damage by
thermal shock.
 On the other hand, glassed steel combines the
corrosion resistance of glass with the working
strength of steel.
 Nucerite is a ceramic-metal composite made in a
similar manner to glassed steel and resists corrosive
hydrogen-chloride gas, chlorine, or sulfur dioxide at
650°C. Its impact strength is 18 times that of safety
glass and the abrasion resistance is superior to
porcelain enamel.
 Stoneware and porcelain:
 Materials of stoneware and porcelain are about as
resistant to acids and chemicals as glass, but with the
advantage of greater strength. This is offset somewhat by
poor thermal conductivity and susceptibility to damage by
thermal shock. Porcelain enamels are used to coat steel,
but the enamel has slightly inferior chemical resistance
 Brick & Cement materials:
 Brick-lined construction can be used for many severely
corrosive conditions, where high alloys would fail.
Acidproof refractories can be used up to 900°C.
 A number of cement materials are used with brick.
Standard are phenolic and furane resins, polyesters,
sulfur, silicate, and epoxy-based materials. Carbon- filled
polyesters and furanes are good against nonoxidizing
acids, salts, and solvents. Silica-filled resins should not be
used against hydrofluoric or fluorosilicic acids. Sulfur-
based cements are limited to 95°C while resins can be
used to about 175°C. The sodium silicate based cements
ORGANIC NONMETALS:
 In comparison with metallic materials, the use of
organic nonmetallics is limited to relatively
moderate temperatures and pressures.
Plastics:
 In comparison with metallic materials, the use of

plastics is limited to relatively moderate

temperatures and pressures (230°C is considered
high for plastics).
 Plastics are also less resistant to mechanical abuse

and have high expansion rates, low strengths

(thermoplastics), and only fair resistance to
solvents.
 However, they are lightweight, are good thermal

and electrical insulators, are easy to fabricate and

install, and have low friction factors
 Generally, plastics have excellent resistance to
weak mineral acids and are unaffected by
inorganic salt solutions-areas where metals are
not entirely suitable. Since plastics do not
corrode in the electrochemical sense, they offer
another advantage over metals: most metals are
affected by slight changes in pH, or minor
impurities, or oxygen content, while plastics will
remain resistant to these same changes.
 One of the most chemical-resistant plastics

commercially available today is

tetrafluoroethylene or TFE (Teflon). This
thermoplastic is practically unaffected by all
alkalies and acids except fluorine and chlorine
gas at elevated temperatures and molten metals.
It retains its properties up to 260°C.
 Chlorotrifluoroethylene or CFE (Kel-F) also
possesses excellent corrosion resistance to
almost all acids and alkalies up to 175°C.
 FEP, a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and

hexafluoropropylene, has similar properties to

TFE except that it is not recommended for
continuous exposures at temperatures above
200°C.
 Also, FEP can be extruded on conventional

extrusion equipment, while TFE parts must be

made by complicated “powdered-metallurgy”
techniques.
LOW & HIGH TEMPERATURE
MATERIALS
 Among the most important properties of
materials at the other end of the temperature
spectrum are creep, rupture, and short-time
strengths. Stress rupture is another important
consideration at high temperatures since it
relates stress and time to produce rupture
SELECTION OF MATERIALS
 Preliminary selection
Experience, manufacturer’s data, special literature,
general literature, availability, safety aspects,
preliminary laboratory tests
 Laboratory testing

Reevaluation of apparently suitable materials under

process conditions
 Interpretation of laboratory results and other

data
Effect of possible impurities, excess temperature, excess
pressure, agitation, and presence of air in equipment
Avoidance of electrolysis Fabrication method
 Economic comparison of apparently suitable
materials
Material and maintenance cost, probable life, cost of
product degradation, liability to special hazards
 Final selection
ECONOMICS INVOLVED IN
SELECTION
 Any cost estimation should include the following
 Total equipment or materials costs
 Installation costs
 Maintenance costs amount and timing
 Service life
 Replacement costs
 Downtime costs
 Costs of inhibitors, control facilities required to
achieve estimated service life
 Depreciation and taxes
 Time value of money
 Inflation
 One difficulty with such a comparison is the
uncertainty associated with estimated life. Well
designed laboratory and plant tests can at least
give order-of-magnitude estimates.

 Other difficulty arises in estimating the annual

maintenance cost. This can only be predicted from
previous experience with the specific materials.
FABRICATION OF EQUIPMENT
 Fabrication expenses account for a large fraction
of the purchased cost for equipment
 Many of the design and fabrication details for

equipment are governed by various codes, such

as the ASME Codes. These codes can be used to
indicate definite specifications or tolerance limits
without including a large amount of descriptive
restrictions.
 The exact methods used for fabrication depend on
the complexity and type of equipment being
prepared. In general, however, the following steps
are involved in the complete fabrication of major
pieces of chemical equipment
1. Layout of materials
2. Cutting to correct dimensions
3. Forming into desired shape
4 . Fastening
5 . Testing
6 . Heat-treating
7 . Finishing
 1. LAYOUT
 The first step in the fabrication is to establish the
layout of the various components on the basis of
detailed instructions prepared by the fabricator.
 Flat pieces of the metal or other constructional

material involved are marked to indicate where

cutting and forming are required. Allowances must be
made for losses caused by cutting, shrinkage due to
welding, or deformation caused by the various
forming operations.
 After the equipment starts to take shape, the location

of various outlets and attachments will become

necessary. Thus, the layout operation can continue
throughout the entire fabrication. If tolerances are
critical, an exact layout, with adequate allowances for
deformation, shrinkage, and losses, is absolutely
 2. CUTTING
 Several methods can be used for cutting the laid-out
materials to the correct size.
 Shearing is the cheapest method and is satisfactory

for relatively thin sheets. The edge resulting from a

shearing operation may not be usable for welding,
and the sheared edges may require an additional
grinding or machining treatment.
 Burning is often used for cutting metals. This

method can be employed to cut and, simultaneously,

prepare a beveled edge suitable for welding.
 Sawing can be used to cut metals that are in the

form of flat sheets. However, sawing is expensive,

and it is used only when the heat effects from burning
would be detrimental.
3. FORMING
 After the constructional materials have been cut,
the next step is to form them into the desired
shape. This can be accomplished by various
methods, such as by rolling, bending, pressing,
bumping (i.e., pounding), or spinning on a die.
 In some cases, heating may be necessary in order

to carry out the forming operation. Because of

work hardening of the material, annealing may be
required before forming and between stages
during the forming.
 When the fitting is complete and all edges are

correctly aligned, the main seams can be tack-

welded in preparation for the final fastening
4. FASTENING
 Riveting can be used for fastening operations, but
electric welding is far more common and gives
superior results. The quality of a weld is very
important, because the ability of equipment to
withstand pressure or corrosive conditions is often
limited by the conditions along the welds.

 Although good welds may be stronger than the

metal that is fastened together, design engineers
usually assume a weld is not perfect and employ
weld efficiencies of 80 to 95 percent in the design
of pressure vessels.
5. TESTING
 All welded joints can be tested for concealed
imperfections by X rays, and code specifications
usually require X-ray examination of main seams.
Hydrostatic tests can be conducted to locate
leaks. Sometimes, delicate tests, such as a
helium probe test, are used to check for very
small leaks.
6.HEAT TREATING
 After the preliminary testing and necessary
repairs are completed, it may be necessary to
heat-treat the equipment to remove forming and
welding stresses, restore corrosion-resistance
properties to heat-affected materials, and prevent
stress-corrosion conditions. A low-temperature
treatment may be adequate, or the particular
conditions may require a full anneal followed by a
rapid quench.
7.FINISHING

 The finishing operation involves preparing the

equipment for final shipment. Sandblasting,
polishing, and painting may be necessary. Final
pressure tests at 1.5 to 2 or more times the
design pressure are conducted together with
other tests as demanded by the specified code
or requested by the inspector.