1.

Control Systems − Introduction Control Systems

A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by controlling the output. The following
figure shows the simple block diagram of a control system.

Here, the control system is represented by a single block. Since, the output is controlled by varying
input, the control system got this name. We will vary this input with some mechanism. In the next
section on open loop and closed loop control systems, we will study in detail about the blocks inside
the control system and how to vary this input in order to get the desired response.

Examples: Traffic lights control system, washing machine

Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of input signal is
applied to this control system and the output is one of the three lights that will be on for some
duration of time. During this time, the other two lights will be off. Based on the traffic study at a
particular junction, the on and off times of the lights can be determined. Accordingly, the input
signal controls the output. So, the traffic lights control system operates on time basis.

Classification of Control
Systems
Based on some parameters, we can classify the control systems into the following ways.

Continuous time and Discrete-time Control Systems

Control Systems can be classified as continuous time control systems and discrete time control
systems based on the type of the signal used.

In continuous time control systems, all the signals are continuous in time. But, in discrete time control
systems, there exists one or more discrete time signals.

SISO and MIMO Control Systems

Control Systems can be classified as SISO control systems and MIMO control systems based on the number
of inputs and outputs present.

SISO (Single Input and Single Output) control systems have one input and one output. Whereas, MIMO
(Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs) control systems have more than one input and more than one output.

1
 Control Systems

Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems

Control Systems can be classified as open loop control systems and closed loop control
systems based on the feedback path.

In open loop control systems, output is not fed-back to the input. So, the control action
is independent of the desired output.

The following figure shows the block diagram of the open loop control system.

Here, an input is applied to a controller and it produces an actuating signal or controlling

signal. This signal is given as an input to a plant or process which is to be controlled. So,
the plant produces an output, which is controlled. The traffic lights control system which
we discussed earlier is an example of an open loop control system.

In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input. So, the control action
is dependent on the desired output.

The following figure shows the block diagram of negative feedback closed loop control
system.

The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input
and the feedback signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback
elements) by considering the output of the overall system as an input to this block.
Instead of the direct input, the error signal is applied as an input to a controller.

So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this
combination, the output of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the
desired response. Hence, the closed loop control systems are also called the automatic
control systems. Traffic lights control system having sensor at the input is an example of
a closed loop control system.

2
 Control Systems

The differences
between the
open loop and
Open Loop Control Systems Closed Loop Controlthe closed loop
Systems
control systems
are mentioned
Control action is independent of the Control action is dependent on the desired
in the following
desired output. output.
table.

Feedback path is not present. Feedback path is present.

These are also called as non-feedback These are also called as feedback
control systems. control systems.

Easy to design. Difficult to design.

These are economical. These are costlier.

Inaccurate. Accurate.

3
 2. Control Systems − Control Systems

Feedback

If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and utilized as
part of the system input, then it is known as feedback. Feedback plays an important role
in order to improve the performance of the control systems. In this chapter, let us
discuss the types of feedback & effects of feedback.

Types of
Feedback
There are two types of feedback:

Positive feedback

Negative feedback

Positive Feedback
The positive feedback adds the reference input, 𝑅(𝑠) and feedback output. The following
figure shows the block diagram of positive feedback control system.

The concept of transfer function will be discussed in later chapters. For the time being,
consider the transfer function of positive feedback control system is,

𝑻
𝑮

=
𝟏−𝑮
(Equation1)
𝑯
Where,

T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control system.

G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

Negative Feedback
Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference input, 𝑅(𝑠) and system
output. The following figure shows the block diagram of the negative feedback control
system.

4
 Control Systems

Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,

𝑻
𝑮

=
𝟏+𝑮
(Equation 2)
𝑯
Where,

T is the transfer function or overall gain of negative feedback control system

G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency
H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency

The derivation of the above transfer function is present in later chapters.

Effects of
Feedback
Let us now understand the effects of feedback.

Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain

From Equation 2, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop
control system is the ratio of ‘G’ and (1+GH). So, the overall gain may increase or
decrease depending on the value of (1+GH).

If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this case, ‘GH’
value is negative because the gain of the feedback path is negative.

If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this case,
‘GH’ value is positive because the gain of the feedback path is positive.

In general, ‘G’ and ‘H’ are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase the
overall gain of the system in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency
range.

Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity

Sensitivity of the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system (T) to the
variation in open loop gain (G) is defined as
𝛛
𝐒𝐓𝐓
=𝐓 ⁄ 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞

=
𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞
𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐓
(Equation 3)
𝐆
𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐆
𝛛𝐆⁄
Where, 𝞉T is the incremental change
𝐆
in T due to incremental change in G.

5
 Control Systems

We can rewrite Equation 3 as

𝑺�
𝑻
= 𝝏𝑮 (Equation 4)
𝝏𝑻
�𝑮 𝑻
Do partial differentiation with respect to G on both sides of Equation 2.

∂T ∂ G (1+GH).1−𝐺(𝐻)
∂G = ( )= =
∂G 1+GH
(Equation 5)
1 (1+GH)2
(1+GH)2

= you
From Equation𝐺2,
�
1 + will get
𝐺𝐻
(Equation 6)
�
Substitute Equation 5 and Equation 6 in Equation 4.
1 1
𝑆� 𝑇
(1 + GH)( 1 + 𝐺𝐻) 1+
=�
2

𝐺𝐻 =
So, we got the sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system as the
reciprocal of (1+GH). So, Sensitivity may increase or decrease depending on the value of
(1+GH).

If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case, ‘GH’ value is
negative because the gain of feedback path is negative.

If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this case, ‘GH’
value is positive because the gain of feedback path is positive.

In general, ‘G’ and ‘H’ are functions of frequency. So, feedback will increase the
sensitivity of the system gain in one frequency range and decrease in the other
frequency range. Therefore, we have to choose the values of ‘GH’ in such a way that the
system is insensitive or less sensitive to parameter variations.

Effect of Feedback on Stability

A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be
unstable.

In Equation 2, if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output of the
control system will be infinite. So, the control system becomes unstable.

Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the control system
stable.

Effect of Feedback on Noise

To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer function relations
with and without feedback due to noise signal alone.

Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

6
 Control Systems

The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

𝐶(𝑠)

𝑁(𝑠 𝑏
)= 𝐺
(Equation 7)

It is obtained by making the other input 𝑅(𝑠) equal to zero.

Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

𝐺𝑏
𝑁(𝑠) =
𝐶(𝑠) (Equation 8)
1+𝐺𝑎𝐺𝑏𝐻
It is obtained by making the other input 𝑅(𝑠) equal to zero.

Compare Equation 7 and Equation 8,

(1 + 𝐺𝑎𝐺𝑏𝐻) provided that the term (1 + 𝐺𝑎𝐺𝑏𝐻) is greater than one.

In the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal is decreased by a factor of

7
 3. Control Systems − Control Systems

Mathematical Models

The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known as
mathematical model. These models are useful for analysis and design of control
systems. Analysis of control system means finding the output when we know the input
and mathematical model. Design of control system means finding the mathematical
model when we know the input and the output.

The following mathematical models are mostly used.

Differential equation model

Transfer function model

State space model

Let us discuss the first two models in this chapter.

Differential Equation
Model
Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control systems.
Follow these steps for differential equation model.

Apply basic laws to the given control system.

Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the
intermediate variable(s).

Example
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit

series. The input voltage applied to this circuit is 𝑣𝑖 and the voltage across the capacitor
consists of resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in

is the output voltage 𝑣𝑜 .

Mesh equation for this circuit is

𝑣𝑖 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿𝑑 𝑑𝑖 + 𝑜
𝑣 𝑡

8
 Control Systems

Substitute, the current passing through capacitor i = C d𝑣

dt in the above equation.
𝑜

d𝑣𝑜
𝑑2𝑣𝑜
=> 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑅C +
dt
𝑑2𝑣𝑜 𝑅 𝐿C d𝑣𝑜d𝑡21+ 𝑣𝑜
=> 1 + ( ) 2 + ( ) 𝑣𝑜 = (
) 𝑣𝑖 d𝑡 𝐿 dt
𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶
The above equation is a second order differential equation.

Transfer Function
Model
Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control systems. The
Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of
Laplace transform of output and Laplace transform of input by assuming all the initial
conditions are zero.

If 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑦(𝑡) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding
Laplace transforms are 𝑋(𝑠) and 𝑌(𝑠).

Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the ratio of 𝑌(𝑠) and 𝑋(𝑠).

i.e., Transfer function =

Y(s)
X(s)

The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown in the following figure.

this block has an input 𝑋(𝑠) & output 𝑌(𝑠).

Here, we represented an LTI system with a block having transfer function inside it. And

Example
Previously, we got the differential equation of an electrical system as
𝑑2𝑣𝑜𝑅 d𝑣𝑜 1
d𝑡 2+ ( 1
) +(
𝐿 dt 𝐿𝐶
) 𝑣𝑜 = (
𝐿𝐶
) 𝑣𝑖

Apply Laplace transform on both sides.

2
𝑠 1 1
𝑠 𝑜𝑉 (𝑠) +𝑅𝐿 ( ) 𝑉 ( 𝑠) + (
𝐿𝐶 𝑖) 𝑉
𝑜 (𝑠) = ( ) 𝑉
𝑜
(𝑠) 𝐿𝐶
2
1 1
=> {𝑠 + � 𝐿( )𝑠+ }𝑉 𝑜 (𝑠) = ( ) 𝑉
𝐿
�
𝑖
(𝑠) 𝐿𝐶 𝐶
𝑉𝑜 1⁄𝐿
=> =
𝑉(𝑠𝑖()𝑠) 𝐶𝑅 1
𝑠2 + (𝐿) 𝑠 +

𝐿𝐶
9
 Control Systems

Where,

𝑉 (𝑠) is the Laplace transform of the input voltage 𝑣

𝑖 𝑖

𝑉 (𝑠) is the Laplace transform of the output voltage 𝑣

𝑜 𝑜

The above equation is a transfer function of the second order electrical system. The
transfer function model of this system is shown below.

Here, we show a second order electrical system with a block having the transfer function
inside it. And this block has an input 𝑉𝑖(𝑠) & an output 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠).

10
 4. Modeling of Mechanical Control Systems

Systems

In this chapter, let us discuss the differential equation modeling of mechanical

systems. There are two types of mechanical systems based on the type of motion.

Translational mechanical systems

Rotational mechanical systems

Modeling of Translational Mechanical

Systems
Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line. These systems mainly
consist of three basic elements. Those are mass, spring and dashpot or damper.

If a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing

forces due to mass, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied force and the
opposing forces are in opposite directions, the algebraic sum of the forces acting on the
system is zero. Let us now see the force opposed by these three elements individually.

Mass
Mass is the property of a body, which stores kinetic energy. If a force is applied on a
body having mass M, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to mass. This opposing
force is proportional to the acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are
negligible.

𝐹𝑚 ∝ 𝑎

=> 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎 = 𝑀𝑑 𝑥2
2

𝑑𝑡

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑀𝑑 𝑥2
2

𝑑𝑡

Where,

𝑭 is the applied force

𝑭𝒎 is the opposing force due to mass
𝑴 is mass
𝒂 is acceleration
𝒙 is displacement

11
 Control Systems

Spring
Spring is an element, which stores potential energy. If a force is applied on spring K,
then it is opposed by an opposing force due to elasticity of spring. This opposing force is
proportional to the displacement of the spring. Assume mass and friction are negligible.

𝐹𝑘 ∝ 𝑥

=> 𝐹𝑘 = 𝐾𝑥

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑘 = 𝐾𝑥

Where,

𝑭 is the applied force

𝑭𝒌 is the opposing force due to elasticity of spring
𝑲 is spring constant
𝒙 is displacement

Dashpot
If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to friction
of the dashpot. This opposing force is proportional to the velocity of the body. Assume
mass and elasticity are negligible.

𝐹𝑏 ∝ 𝑣

𝑑𝑥
=> 𝐹𝑏 = 𝐵𝑣
=𝐵
𝑑𝑡

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑏 = 𝐵𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡

12
 Control Systems

Where,

𝑭𝒃 is the opposing force due to friction of dashpot

𝑩 is the frictional coefficient
𝒗 is velocity
𝒙 is displacement

Modeling of Rotational Mechanical

Systems
Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis. These systems mainly consist
of three basic elements. Those are moment of inertia, torsional spring and dashpot.

If a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing

torques due to moment of inertia, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied
torque and the opposing torques are in opposite directions, the algebraic sum of torques
acting on the system is zero. Let us now see the torque opposed by these three elements
individually.

Moment of Inertia
In translational mechanical system, mass stores kinetic energy. Similarly, in rotational
mechanical system, moment of inertia stores kinetic energy.

If a torque is applied on a body having moment of inertia J, then it is opposed by an

opposing torque due to the moment of inertia. This opposing torque is proportional to
angular acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.

𝑇𝑗 ∝ 𝛼

=> 𝑇𝑗 = 𝐽𝛼 = 𝐽𝑑 𝜃2
2

𝑑𝑡

𝑇 = 𝑇𝑗 = 𝐽𝑑 𝜃2
2

𝑑𝑡

Where,

𝑻 is the applied torque

𝑻𝒋 is the opposing torque due to moment of inertia
13
 Control Systems

 𝑱 is moment of inertia
 𝛂 is angular acceleration
 𝛉 is angular displacement.

Torsional Spring
In translational mechanical system, spring stores potential energy. Similarly, in
rotational mechanical system, torsional spring stores potential energy.

If a torque is applied on torsional spring K, then it is opposed by an opposing torque

due to the elasticity of torsional spring. This opposing torque is proportional to the
angular displacement of the torsional spring. Assume that the moment of inertia
and friction are negligible.

𝑇𝑘 ∝ 𝜃

=> 𝑇𝑘 = 𝐾𝜃

𝑇 = 𝑇𝑘 = 𝐾𝜃

Where,

𝑻 is the applied torque

𝑻𝒌 is the opposing torque due to elasticity of torsional spring
𝑲 is the torsional spring constant
𝛉 is angular displacement

Dashpot
If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the
rotational friction of the dashpot. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular
velocity of the body. Assume the moment of inertia and elasticity are negligible.

14
 Control Systems

𝑇𝑏 ∝ 𝜔

=> 𝑇𝑏 = 𝐵𝜔 = 𝐵 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑡

𝑇 = 𝑇𝑑𝜃
𝑏 = 𝐵
𝑑𝑡

Where,

𝑻𝒃 is the opposing torque due to the rotational friction of the

dashpot
𝑩 is the rotational friction coefficient
𝛚 is the angular velocity
𝛉 is the angular displacement.

15
 5. Electrical Analogies of Control Systems

Mechanical Systems

Two systems are said to be analogous to each other if the following two conditions are
satisfied.

The two systems are physically different

Differential equation modelling of these two systems are same

Electrical systems and mechanical systems are two physically different systems. There
are two types of electrical analogies of translational mechanical systems. Those are force
voltage analogy and force current analogy.

Force Voltage
Analogy
In force voltage analogy, the mathematical equations of translational mechanical
system are compared with mesh equations of the electrical system.

Consider the following translational mechanical system as shown in the following figure.

The force balanced equation for this system is

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚 + 𝐹𝑏+𝐹𝑘
2
=> 𝐹 = 𝑀 𝑑 𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑑𝑥
+𝑑𝑡𝑘𝑥
2
(Equation 1)
𝑑𝑡
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit

connected in a series. The input voltage applied to this circuit is 𝑉 volts and the current
consists of a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor. All these electrical elements are

flowing through the circuit is 𝑖 Amps.

16
 Control Systems

Mesh equation for this circuit is -

𝑉 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿𝑑𝑡 + ∫
𝑑𝑖 1 (Equation 2)
𝐶
Substitute, i = dq
dt
in Equation 2. 𝑖𝑑𝑡

dq
𝑑2𝑞
𝑞
𝑉2 = 𝑅
𝑑+ 𝑞 𝐿
=> 𝑉 = 𝐿 + + 𝑅 dq + (1)
𝑞
𝐶 dt
(Equation 3)
𝑑𝑡2 dt

By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 𝑑𝑡 3, 2we will get the analogous quantities of the
𝐶
translational mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these
analogous quantities.

Translational Mechanical System Electrical System

Force (F) Voltage (V)

Mass (M) Inductance (L)

Frictional coefficient (B) Resistance (R)

Reciprocal of Capacitance (1)

𝐶
Spring constant (K)

Displacement (x) Charge (q)

Velocity (v) Current (i)

Similarly, there is torque voltage analogy for rotational mechanical systems. Let us now
discuss about this analogy.

Torque Voltage Analogy

In this analogy, the mathematical equations of rotational mechanical system are
compared with mesh equations of the electrical system.

Rotational mechanical system is shown in the following figure.

17
 Control Systems

The torque balanced equation is -

𝑇 = 𝑇𝑗 + 𝑇𝑏 +𝑇𝑘
2
=> 𝑇 = 𝐽 𝑑 𝜃 + 𝐵 𝑑𝜃
+ 𝑘𝜃
𝑑𝑡2
(Equation 4)
𝑑𝑡
By comparing Equation 4 and Equation 3, we will get the analogous quantities of
rotational mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these
analogous quantities.

Rotational Mechanical System Electrical System

Torque (T) Voltage (V)

Moment of Inertia (J) Inductance (L)

Rotational friction coefficient (B) Resistance (R)

Reciprocal of Capacitance (1)

𝐶
Torsional spring constant (K)

Angular Displacement (𝜃) Charge (q)

Angular Velocity (𝜔) Current (i)

Force Current
Analogy
In force current analogy, the mathematical equations of the translational mechanical
system are compared with the nodal equations of the electrical system.

Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit
consists of current source, resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements
are connected in parallel.

The nodal equation is -

i = 1𝑅+
𝑉 dV
∫ V dt + C
(Equation 5)
𝐿 dt
Substitute, 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑑𝛹 in Equation 5.
𝑡
i = 1 𝑑𝛹+ ( ) 𝛹 + 𝑑
2

C 1 � 𝛹𝑑2
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 �2 1 𝑑𝛹 𝑡
=> i = C 𝑑 𝛹 +1( )
𝑑𝑡2 +𝑅 ( )𝑑𝑡𝛹
(Equation 6)
𝐿
18
 Control Systems

By comparing
Equation 1 and
Equation 6, we
will get the
Translational Mechanical System Electrical System analogous
quantities of the
translational
Force (F) Current (i) mechanical
system and
Mass (M) Capacitance (C)electrical

Reciprocal of Resistance (1)

system. The
following 𝑅
Frictional coefficient (B)
table

(1)
shows these
𝐿
Spring constant (K) Reciprocal of Inductance
analogous
quantities.
Displacement (x) Magnetic Flux (𝛹)

Velocity (v) Voltage (V)

Similarly, there is a torque current analogy for rotational mechanical systems. Let us now
discuss this analogy.

Torque Current Analogy

In this analogy, the mathematical equations of the rotational mechanical system are
compared with the nodal mesh equations of the electrical system.

By comparing Equation 4 and Equation 6, we will get the analogous quantities of

rotational mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these
analogous quantities.

Rotational Mechanical System Electrical System

Torque (T) Current (i)

Moment of Inertia (J) Capacitance (C)

Reciprocal of Resistance (1)

𝑅
Rotational friction coefficient (B)

Reciprocal of Inductance (1)

𝐿
Torsional spring constant (K)

Angular displacement (𝜃) Magnetic flux (𝛹)

Angular velocity (𝜔) Voltage (V)

In this chapter, we discussed the electrical analogies of the mechanical systems. These
analogies are helpful to study and analyze the non-electrical system like mechanical
system from analogous electrical system.

19
 6. Control Systems − Block Control Systems

Diagrams

Block diagrams consist of a single block or a combination of blocks. These are used to
represent the control systems in pictorial form.

Basic Elements of Block

Diagram
The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point and the take-off
point. Let us consider the block diagram of a closed loop control system as shown in the
following figure to identify these elements.

The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s).
It is also having one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the direction
of the flow of signals. Let us now discuss these elements one by one.

Block
The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single input
and single output.

The following figure shows a block having input X(s), output Y(s) and the transfer function
G(s).

Transfer function, 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑋(𝑠

𝑌(𝑠)

=> 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝑋(𝑠)

Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of the block with
input.

20
 Control Systems

Summing Point
The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two or
more inputs and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also
performs the summation or subtraction or combination of summation and subtraction of
the inputs based on the polarity of the inputs. Let us see these three operations one by
one.

The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the output,
Y as sum of A and B.
i.e., 𝑌 = 𝐴 + 𝐵.

The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B are having opposite signs, i.e., A is having positive sign and B is
having negative sign. So, the summing point produces the output Y as the difference of
A and B.

𝑌 = 𝐴 + (−𝐵) = 𝐴 − 𝐵.

The following figure shows the summing point with three inputs (A, B, C) and one output
(Y). Here, the inputs A and B are having positive signs and C is having a negative sign.
So, the summing point produces the output Y as
𝑌 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + (−𝐶) = 𝐴 + 𝐵 − 𝐶.

21
 Control Systems

Take-off Point
The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through
more than one branch. That means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the
same input to one or more blocks, summing points.

In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the same input, R(s) to two
more blocks.

In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the output 𝐶(𝑠), as one of the
inputs to the summing point.

Block Diagram Representation of Electrical

Systems
In this section, let us represent an electrical system with a block
diagram. Electrical
systems contain mainly three basic elements — resistor, inductor and capacitor.

Consider a series of RLC circuit as shown in the following figure. Where, 𝑉𝑖(t) and 𝑉𝑜(t)
are the input and output voltages. Let 𝑖(𝑡) be the current passing through the circuit.
This circuit is in time domain.

22
 Control Systems

By applying the Laplace transform to this circuit, will get the circuit in s-domain. The
circuit is as shown in the following figure.

From the above circuit, we can write –

𝑉𝑖(𝑠) − 𝑉𝑜
(𝑠)
𝐼(𝑠𝑅)= +
𝑠𝐿
=> 𝐼(𝑠) = {𝑅+𝑠
1
} {𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) − 𝑉 (Equation 1)
𝐿 𝑜
(𝑠)} 𝑉𝑜 = (1 ) 𝐼(𝑠)
𝑠𝐶
(Equation 2)
(𝑠)
Let us now draw the block diagrams for these two equations individually. And then
combine those block diagrams properly in order to get the overall block diagram of series
of RLC Circuit (s-domain).
1
𝑅+𝑠𝐿
and output of this block are {𝑉𝑖(𝑠) − 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)} and 𝐼(𝑠). We require a summing point to get
Equation 1 can be implemented with a block having the transfer function, . The input

{𝑉𝑖(𝑠) − 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)}. The block diagram of Equation 1 is shown in the following figure.

23
 Control Systems

Equation 2 can be implemented with a block having transfer function, 1 . The input and 𝑠𝐶
output of this block are 𝐼(𝑠) and 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠). The block diagram of Equation 2 is shown in the
following figure.

The overall block diagram of the series of RLC Circuit (s-domain) is shown in the following
figure.

Similarly, you can draw the block diagram of any electrical circuit or system just by
following this simple procedure.
Convert the time domain electrical circuit into an s-domain electrical circuit by applying
Laplace transform.

Write down the equations for the current passing through all series branch elements
and voltage across all shunt branches.

Draw the block diagrams for all the above equations individually.

Combine all these block diagrams properly in order to get the overall block diagram of
the electrical circuit (s-domain).

24
 7. Control Systems − Block Control Systems

Diagram Algebra

Block diagram algebra is nothing but the algebra involved with the basic elements of the
block diagram. This algebra deals with the pictorial representation of algebraic equations.

Basic Connections for

Blocks
There are three basic types of connections between two blocks.

Series Connection
Series connection is also called cascade connection. In the following figure, two blocks
having transfer functions 𝐺1(𝑠) and 𝐺2(𝑠) are connected in series.

For this combination, we will get the output 𝑌(𝑠) as

𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐺2(𝑠)𝑍(𝑠)

Where, 𝑍(𝑠) = 𝐺1(𝑠)𝑋(𝑠)

=> 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐺2(𝑠)[𝐺1(𝑠)𝑋(𝑠)] = 𝐺1(𝑠)𝐺2(𝑠)𝑋(𝑠)

=> 𝑌(𝑠) = {𝐺1(𝑠)𝐺2(𝑠)} 𝑋(𝑠)

Compare this equation with the standard form of the output equation, 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠) 𝑋(𝑠).
Where, 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐺1(𝑠)𝐺2(𝑠).

That means we can represent the series connection of two blocks with a single block.
The transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of
those two blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent series connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of all those
‘n’ blocks.

Parallel Connection
The blocks which are connected in parallel will have the same input. In the following
figure, two blocks having transfer functions 𝐺1(𝑠) and 𝐺2(𝑠) are connected in parallel. The
outputs of these two blocks are connected to the summing point.

25
 Control Systems

For this combination, we will get the output 𝑌(𝑠) as

𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑌1(𝑠) + 𝑌2(𝑠)

Where, 𝑌1(𝑠) = 𝐺1(𝑠)𝑋(𝑠) and 𝑌2(𝑠) = 𝐺2(𝑠)𝑋(𝑠)

=> 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐺1(𝑠)𝑋(𝑠) + 𝐺2(𝑠)𝑋(𝑠) = {𝐺1(𝑠) + 𝐺2(𝑠)} 𝑋(𝑠)

Compare this equation with the standard form of the output equation, 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠) 𝑋(𝑠).

Where, 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐺1(𝑠) + 𝐺2(𝑠).

That means we can represent the parallel connection of two blocks with a single block.
The transfer function of this single block is the sum of the transfer functions of those
two blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent parallel connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the algebraic sum of the transfer functions of all
those ‘n’ blocks.

Feedback Connection
As we discussed in previous chapters, there are two types of feedback — positive
feedback and negative feedback. The following figure shows negative feedback control
system. Here, two blocks having transfer functions 𝐺(𝑠) and 𝐻(𝑠) form a closed loop.

The output of the summing point is -

𝐸(𝑠) = 𝑋(𝑠) − 𝐻(𝑠)𝑌(𝑠)

The output 𝑌(𝑠) is -

𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐸(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠)
26
 Control Systems

Substitute 𝐸(𝑠) value in the above equation.

𝑌(𝑠) = {𝑋(𝑠) − 𝐻(𝑠) 𝑌(𝑠)}𝐺(𝑠)
𝑌(𝑠) {1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)} = 𝑋(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠)
𝑌(𝑠)
=> 𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑋(𝑠) 1 +
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠
1 +)
Therefore, the negative feedback closed loop transfer function is .
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)
This means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a
single block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function
of the negative feedback. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent the positive feedback connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the
𝐺(𝑠
positive feedback, i.e.,
1− ) .
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)

Block Diagram Algebra for Summing

Points
There are two possibilities of shifting summing points with respect to blocks:

Shifting summing point after the block

Shifting summing point before the block

Let us now see what kind of arrangements need to be done in the above two cases one
by one.

Shifting Summing Point After the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is
present before the block.

Summing point has two inputs 𝑅(𝑠) and 𝑋(𝑠). The output of it is {𝑅(𝑠) + 𝑋(𝑠)}.

So, the input to the block 𝐺(𝑠) is {𝑅(𝑠) + 𝑋(𝑠)} and the output of it is –
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠) {𝑅(𝑠) + 𝑋(𝑠)}

=> 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠) 𝑅(𝑠) + 𝐺(𝑠) 𝑋(𝑠) (Equation 1)

27
 Control Systems

Now, shift the

summing point
after the block.
This block
diagram is
shown in the
following figure.

Output of the block 𝐺(𝑠) is 𝐺(𝑠)𝑅(𝑠).

The output of the summing point is

𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝑅(𝑠) + 𝑋(𝑠) (Equation 2)

Compare Equation 1 and Equation 2.

The first term ‘𝐺(𝑠) 𝑅(𝑠)’ is same in both the equations. But, there is difference in the
second term. In order to get the second term also same, we require one more block 𝐺(𝑠).
It is having the input 𝑋(𝑠) and the output of this block is given as input to summing point
instead of 𝑋(𝑠). This block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Shifting Summing Point Before the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is
present after the block.

Output of this block diagram is -

𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝑅(𝑠) + 𝑋(𝑠) (Equation 3)

Now, shift the summing point before the block. This block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

28
 Control Systems

Output of this block diagram is -

𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝑅(𝑠) +
𝐺(𝑠)𝑋(𝑠)
(Equation 4)

The first term ‘𝐺(𝑠) 𝑅(𝑠)’ is sameEquation

Compare Equation 3 and
in both equations.
4, But, there is difference in the second
term. In order to get the second term also same, we require one more block 1 . 𝐺(𝑠)
It is
input 𝑋(𝑠)
having the

and the
output of
this block
is given as
input to
summing
point

of 𝑋(𝑠).
instead

This block
diagram is
shown in
the
following
figure.

Block Diagram Algebra for Take-off

Points
There are two possibilities of shifting the take-off points with respect to blocks:

Shifting take-off point after the block

Shifting take-off point before the block

Let us now see what kind of arrangements are to be done in the above two cases, one by
one.

29
 Control Systems

Shifting Take-off Point After the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. In this case, the take-off point
is present before the block.

Here, 𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠) and 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝑅(𝑠).

When you shift the take-off point after the block, the output 𝑌(𝑠) will be same. But, there
is difference in 𝑋(𝑠) value. So, in order to get the same 𝑋(𝑠) value, we require one more

) is having the input 𝑌 𝑠 and the output is 𝑋 𝑠 . This block diagram is shown in
1
block 𝐺 .(𝑠It ( ) ( )
the following
figure.

Shifting Take-off Point Before the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the take-off point is
present after the block.

Here, 𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑌(𝑠) =

𝐺(𝑠)𝑅(𝑠).

30
Control Systems

When you shift

the take-off
point before the

output 𝑌(𝑠) will

block, the

be same. But,
there is

𝑋(𝑠) value. So,

difference in

same 𝑋(𝑠)
in order to get

value, we
require one

𝐺(𝑠). It is
more block

𝑅(𝑠) and the

having the input

output is 𝑋(𝑠).
This block
diagram is
shown in the
following figure.

31
 8. Block Diagram Control Systems

Reduction

The concepts discussed in the previous chapter are helpful for reducing (simplifying) the
block diagrams.

Block Diagram Reduction

Rules
Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram, which is having many
blocks, summing points and take-off points.

Rule 1: Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.

Rule 2: Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.

Rule 3: Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.

Rule 4: If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it towards right.

Rule 5: If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it towards left.

Rule 6: Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single block.

[[

Note: The transfer function present in this single block is the transfer function of the
overall block diagram.

Example
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Let us simplify (reduce) this
block diagram using the block diagram reduction rules.

Step 1: Use Rule 1 for blocks 𝐺1 and 𝐺2. Use Rule 2 for blocks 𝐺3 and 𝐺4. The modified
block diagram is shown in the following figure.

32
 Control Systems

Step 2: Use Rule 3 for blocks 𝐺1𝐺2 and 𝐻1. Use Rule 4 for shifting take-off point after the
block 𝐺5. The modified block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 3: Use Rule 1 for blocks (𝐺3 + 𝐺4) and 𝐺5. The modified block diagram is shown in
the following figure.

Step 4: Use Rule 3 for blocks (𝐺3 + 𝐺4)𝐺5 and 𝐻3. The modified block diagram is shown
in the following figure.

33
 Control Systems

Step 5: Use Rule 1 for blocks connected in series. The modified block diagram is shown
in the following figure.

Step 6: Use Rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop. The modified block diagram is
shown in the following figure. This is the simplified block diagram.

Therefore, the transfer function of the system is

𝑌(𝑠)= 𝐺1𝐺2 𝐺52(𝐺3

𝑅(𝑠) 1 2 1 (1 + 𝐺
3 𝐺 𝐻 51 +
4 ){ 3 (5𝐺 +1𝐺 2)𝐺5𝐻3 }𝐺 4
+ 𝐺4−
) 𝐺 𝐺 𝐺 (𝐺 + 𝐺 )𝐻 2

Note: Follow these steps in order to calculate the transfer function of the block diagram
having multiple inputs.
Step 1: Find the transfer function of block diagram by considering one input at a time
and make the remaining inputs as zero.

Step 2: Repeat step 1 for remaining inputs.

Step 3: Get the overall transfer function by adding all those transfer functions.

The block diagram reduction process takes more time for complicated systems. Because,
we have to draw the (partially simplified) block diagram after each step. So, to overcome
this drawback, use signal flow graphs (representation).

34
 9. Control Systems − Signal Control Systems

Flow Graphs

Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of algebraic equations. In this chapter, let
us discuss the basic concepts related signal flow graph and also learn how to draw signal
flow graphs.

Basic Elements of Signal Flow

Graph
Nodes and branches are the basic elements of signal flow graph.

Node
Node is a point which represents either a variable or a signal. There are three types of
nodes — input node, output node and mixed node.

Input Node: It is a node, which has only outgoing branches.

Output Node: It is a node, which has only incoming branches.

Mixed Node: It is a node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches.

Example
Let us consider the following signal flow graph to identify these nodes.

 The nodes present in this signal flow graph are y1, y2, y3 and y4.

 y1 and y4 are the input node and output node respectively.

 y2 and y3 are mixed nodes.

Branch
Branch is a line segment which joins two nodes. It has both gain and direction. For
example, there are four branches in the above signal flow graph. These branches
have gains of a, b, c and -d.

36
 Control Systems

Construction of Signal Flow

Graph
Let us construct a signal flow graph by considering the following algebraic equations:
𝑦2 = 𝑎12𝑦1 + 𝑎42𝑦4

𝑦3 = 𝑎23𝑦2 + 𝑎53𝑦5

𝑦4 = 𝑎34𝑦3

𝑦5 = 𝑎45𝑦4 + 𝑎35𝑦3

𝑦6 = 𝑎56𝑦5

There will be six nodes (y1, y2, y3, y4, y5 and y6) and eight branches in this signal flow graph. The

gains of the branches are a12, a23, a34, a45, a56, a42, a53 and a35.

To get the overall signal flow graph, draw the signal flow graph for each equation, then
combine all these signal flow graphs and then follow the steps given below:

Step 1: Signal flow graph for 𝑦2 = 𝑎12𝑦1 + 𝑎42𝑦4 is shown in the following figure.

Step 2: Signal flow graph for 𝑦3 = 𝑎23𝑦2 + 𝑎53𝑦5 is shown in the following figure.

Step3: Signal flow graph for 𝑦4 = 𝑎34𝑦3 is shown in the following figure.

37
 Control Systems

Step 4: Signal flow graph for 𝑦5 = 𝑎45𝑦4 + 𝑎35𝑦3 is shown in the following figure.

Step 5: Signal flow graph for 𝑦6 = 𝑎56𝑦5 is shown in the following figure.

Step 6: Signal flow graph of overall system is shown in the following figure.

Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal

Flow Graphs
Follow these steps for converting a block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.
Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off points of block
diagram as nodes in signal flow graph.

Represent the blocks of block diagram as branches in signal flow graph.

Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block diagram as gains of the
branches in signal flow graph.

Connect the nodes as per the block diagram. If there is connection between two nodes
(but there is no block in between), then represent the gain of the branch as one. For
example, between summing points, between summing point and take- off point,
between input and summing point, between take-off point and output.

38
 Control Systems

Example
Let us convert the following block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.

Represent the input signal 𝑅(𝑠) and output signal 𝐶(𝑠) of block diagram as input node
𝑅(𝑠)
and output node 𝐶(𝑠) of signal flow graph.

Just for reference, the remaining nodes (y1 to y9) are labelled in the block diagram. There are nine
nodes other than input and output nodes. That is four nodes for four summing points,

𝐺1 and 𝐺2.
four nodes for four take-off points and one node for the variable between blocks

The following figure shows the equivalent signal flow graph.

With the help of Mason’s gain formula (discussed in the next chapter), you can calculate
the transfer function of this signal flow graph. This is the advantage of signal flow graphs.
Here, we no need to simplify (reduce) the signal flow graphs for calculating the transfer
function.

39
Control Systems

40
 10. Mason’s Gain Control Systems

Formula

Let us now discuss the Mason’s Gain Formula. Suppose there are ‘N’ forward paths in a
signal flow graph. The gain between the input and the output nodes of a signal flow graph
is nothing but the transfer function of the system. It can be calculated by using
Mason’s gain formula.

Mason’s gain formula is

𝐶(𝑠 ∑ 𝑃𝑖
𝑇 ) = 𝑁 ∆∆𝑖
𝑖=1
=
𝑅(𝑠
Where, )
𝑪(𝒔) is the output node
𝑹(𝒔) is the input node
𝑻 is the transfer function or gain between 𝑅(𝑠) and 𝐶(𝑠)
𝑷𝒊 is the ith forward path gain

∆= 1 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠)

+ (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠)
− (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠) + ⋯

∆𝒊 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ∆ 𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑡ℎ
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ.
[

Consider the following signal flow graph in order to understand the basic terminology
involved here.

Path
It is a traversal of branches from one node to any other node in the direction of branch
arrows. It should not traverse any node more than once.

Examples: 𝑦2 → 𝑦3 → 𝑦4 → 𝑦5 and 𝑦5 → 𝑦3 → 𝑦2.

41
 Control Systems

Forward Path
The path that exists from the input node to the output node is known as forward path.

Examples: 𝑦1 → 𝑦2 → 𝑦3 → 𝑦4 → 𝑦5 → 𝑦6 and 𝑦1 → 𝑦2 → 𝑦3 → 𝑦5 → 𝑦6.

Forward Path Gain

It is obtained by calculating the product of all branch gains of the forward path.

Examples: 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑𝑒 is the forward path gain of 𝑦1 → 𝑦2 → 𝑦3 → 𝑦4 → 𝑦5 → 𝑦6 and 𝑎𝑏𝑔𝑒 is

the forward path gain of 𝑦1 → 𝑦2 → 𝑦3 → 𝑦5 → 𝑦6.

Loop
The path that starts from one node and ends at the same node is known as loop. Hence,
it is a closed path.

Examples: 𝑦2 → 𝑦3 → 𝑦2 and 𝑦3 → 𝑦5 → 𝑦3.

Loop Gain
It is obtained by calculating the product of all branch gains of a loop.

Examples: 𝑏𝑗 is the loop gain of 𝑦2 → 𝑦3 → 𝑦2 and 𝑔ℎ is the loop gain of 𝑦3 → 𝑦5 → 𝑦3.

Non-touching Loops
These are the loops, which should not have any common node.

Example: The loops, 𝑦2 → 𝑦3 → 𝑦2 and 𝑦4 → 𝑦5 → 𝑦4 are non-touching.

Calculation of Transfer Function using Mason’s

Gain Formula
Let us consider the same signal flow graph for finding transfer function.

 Number of forward paths, 𝑁 = 2.

First forward path is - 𝑦1 → 𝑦2 → 𝑦3 → 𝑦4 → 𝑦5
→ 𝑦6.


 First forward path gain, 𝑃1 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑𝑒.

 Second forward path is - 𝑦1 → 𝑦2 → 𝑦3 → 𝑦5 → 𝑦6.
42
 Control Systems

Second forward path gain, 𝑃2 = 𝑎𝑏𝑔𝑒.

Number of individual loops, 𝐿 = 5.
Loops are - 𝑦2 → 𝑦3 → 𝑦2, 𝑦3 → 𝑦5 → 𝑦3, 𝑦3 → 𝑦4 → 𝑦5 → 𝑦3, 𝑦4 → 𝑦5 → 𝑦4 and 𝑦5 → 𝑦5.
Loop gains are - 𝑙1 = 𝑏𝑗, 𝑙2 = 𝑔ℎ, 𝑙3 = 𝑐𝑑ℎ, 𝑙4 = 𝑑𝑖 and 𝑙5 = 𝑓.
Number of two non-touching loops = 2.
First non-touching loops pair is - 𝑦2 → 𝑦3 → 𝑦2, 𝑦4 → 𝑦5 → 𝑦4.
Gain product of first non-touching loops pair, 𝑙1𝑙4 = 𝑏𝑗𝑑𝑖
Second non-touching loops pair is - 𝑦2 → 𝑦3 → 𝑦2, 𝑦5 → 𝑦5.
Gain product of second non-touching loops pair is - 𝑙1𝑙5 = 𝑏𝑗𝑓

Higher number of (more than two) non-touching loops are not present in this signal flow
graph.

We know,

∆= 1 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠)

+ (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠)
− (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠) + ⋯

Substitute the values in the above equation,

∆= 1 − (bj + gh + cdh + di + f) + (bjdi + bjf) − (0)

=> ∆= 1 − (bj + gh + cdh + di + f) + bjdi + bjf

There is no loop which is non-touching to the first forward path. So, ∆1= 1.

Similarly, ∆2= 1. Since, no loop which is non-touching to the second forward path.

Substitute, 𝑁 = 2 in Mason’s gain formula𝐶(𝑠 ∑ 𝑃𝑖

𝑇 ) = 2 ∆∆𝑖
𝑖=1
=
𝑅(𝑠
𝐶(𝑠)
) = 𝑃 1∆ 1 +
𝑇
𝑃 2∆ 2
=
𝑅(𝑠) ∆
Substitute all the necessary values in the above equation.
𝐶(𝑠) (abcde)1 + (abge)1
𝑇= =
𝑅(𝑠) 1 − (bj + gh + cdh + di + f) + bjdi + bjf

𝐶(𝑠) abcde + abge

=> 𝑇 = =
𝑅(𝑠) 1 − (bj + gh + cdh + di + f) + bjdi + bjf

Therefore, the transfer function is -

𝐶(𝑠) abcde + abge
𝑇= =
𝑅(𝑠) 1 − (bj + gh + cdh + di + f) + bjdi + bjf

43
 11. Control Systems − Time Control Systems

Response Analysis

We can analyze the response of the control systems in both the time domain and the
frequency domain. We will discuss frequency response analysis of control systems in later
chapters. Let us now discuss about the time response analysis of control systems.

What is Time
Response?
If the output of control system for an input varies with respect to time, then it is called
the time response of the control system. The time response consists of two parts.
Transient response

Steady state response

The response of control system in time domain is shown in the following figure.

Here, both the transient and the steady states are indicated in the figure. The responses
corresponding to these states are known as transient and steady state responses.

Mathematically, we can write the time response 𝑐(𝑡) as

𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑡𝑟(𝑡) + 𝑐𝑠𝑠 (𝑡)

Where,

𝑐 (𝑡) is the transient response

𝑡𝑟

𝑐 (𝑡) is the steady state response

𝑠𝑠

Transient Response
After applying input to the control system, output takes certain time to reach steady
state. So, the output will be in transient state till it goes to a steady state. Therefore, the
response of the control system during the transient state is known as transient
response.
44
 Control Systems

The transient
response will be
zero for large
values of ‘t’.
Ideally, this
𝑡→∞ value of ‘t’ is
infinity and
Steady state Response practically, it is
five times
The part of the time response that remains even after the transient response has zero
constant.
value for large values of ‘t’ is known as steady state response. This means, the
transient response will be zero even during the steady state. Mathematically,
we can write it
Example as

lim 𝑐𝑡𝑟(𝑡) = 0
Let us find the transient and steady state terms of the time response of the control
system
𝑐(𝑡) = 10 + 5𝑒−𝑡.

Here, the second term 𝟓𝒆−𝒕 will be zero as t denotes infinity. So, this is the transient
term. And the first term 𝟏𝟎 remains even as t approaches infinity. So, this is the steady
state term.
Standard Test
Signals
The standard test signals are impulse, step, ramp and parabolic. These signals are used
to know the performance of the control systems using time response of the output.

Unit Impulse Signal

A unit impulse signal, 𝛿(𝑡) is defined as

𝛿(𝑡) = 0 for 𝑡 ≠ 0

and ∫ 𝛿(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 1
0 +
0−

The following figure shows unit impulse signal.

So, the unit impulse signal exists only at ‘t’ is equal to zero. The area of this signal under
small interval of time around ‘t’ is equal to zero is one. The value of unit impulse signal is
zero for all other values of ‘t’.

45
 Control Systems

Unit Step Signal

A unit step signal, u(t) is defined as

𝑢(𝑡) = 1; 𝑡 ≥ 0

= 0; 𝑡 < 0

Following figure shows unit step signal.

So, the unit step signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value is
one during this interval. The value of the unit step signal is zero for all negative values of
‘t’.

Unit Ramp Signal

A unit ramp signal, r(t) is defined as

𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑡; 𝑡 ≥ 0

= 0; 𝑡 < 0

We can write unit ramp signal, r(t) in terms of unit step signal, u(t) as

𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑢(𝑡)

Following figure shows unit ramp signal.

So, the unit ramp signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value
increases linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of unit ramp signal is
zero for all negative values of ‘t’.

46
 Control Systems

Unit Parabolic Signal

A unit parabolic signal, p(t) is defined as,

𝑡2
𝑝(𝑡) = 2 ; 𝑡 ≥
0
= 0; 𝑡 < 0

We can write unit parabolic signal, p(t) in terms of the unit step
signal, u(t) as,

𝑝(𝑡) = 2𝑡2
𝑢(𝑡)

The following figure shows the unit parabolic signal.

So, the unit parabolic signal exists for all the positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its
value increases non-linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of the unit
parabolic signal is zero for all the negative values of ‘t’.

47
 12. Response of the First Control Systems

Order System

In this chapter, let us discuss the time response of the first order system. Consider the
following block diagram of the closed loop control system. Here, an open loop transfer
function, 1𝑠 is connected with a unity negative feedback.
𝑇

We know that the transfer function of the closed loop control system has unity negative
feedback as,
𝐶(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠)= 1 +
𝑅(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠)
Substitute, 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑠1 in the above equation.
𝑇
1
𝐶(𝑠) 1
= 𝑠 =
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑇1 𝑠𝑇 +
1 1+𝑠
𝑇
The power of s is one in the denominator term. Hence, the above transfer function is of
the first order and the system is said to be the first order system.

We can re-write the above equation as

1
𝐶(𝑠) = (𝑠𝑇 + )
𝑅(𝑠) 1
Where,
𝑪(𝒔) is the Laplace transform of the output signal 𝑐(𝑡),

𝑹(𝒔) is the Laplace transform of the input signal 𝑟(𝑡), and

𝑻 is the time constant.

Follow these steps to get the response (output) of the first order system in the time
domain.
Take the Laplace transform of the input signal 𝑟(𝑡).

 Consider the equation, 𝐶(𝑠) = (𝑠𝑇+

1
) 𝑅(𝑠)
1
 Substitute 𝑅(𝑠) value in the above
equation.

 Do partial fractions of 𝐶(𝑠) if required.

 Apply inverse Laplace transform to 𝐶(𝑠).

48
 Control Systems

In the previous
chapter, we
have seen the
standard test
signals like
impulse, step,
Impulse Response of First Order ramp and
System
Consider the unit impulse signal as an input to the first order system.
parabolic. Let us
now find out the
So, 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝛿(𝑡).
responses of the
first order
Apply Laplace transform on both the sides. system for each

𝑅(𝑠) = 1.
input, one by
one. The name
Consider the equation, 𝐶(𝑠) = (𝑠𝑇+1
) 𝑅(𝑠)
of the response
1
Substitute, 𝑅(𝑠) = 1 in the above equation.
is given as per
the name of the
1 1
input signal. For
𝐶(𝑠) = (𝑠𝑇 + 1) (1) 𝑠𝑇 +
example, the
= 1
response of the
system for an
Rearrange the above equation in one of the standard forms of Laplace transforms.

1 1
impulse input is
=> 𝐶(𝑠) = (
𝐶(𝑠) 1
called as
𝑇 (𝑠 𝑇𝑠 1)
= 1
impulse

+ 𝑇) +𝑇
response.
Apply inverse Laplace transform on both sides.
1
𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑇 𝑢(𝑡)
−(𝑡⁄ )
𝑇
The unit impulse response is shown in the following figure.

The unit impulse response, c(t) is an exponential decaying signal for positive values of
‘t’ and it is zero for negative values of ‘t’.

49
 Control Systems

Step Response of First Order

System
Consider the unit step signal as an input to first order system.

So, 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡).

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝑅(𝑠) =𝑠
1

Consider the equation, 𝐶(𝑠) = (𝑠𝑇+) 𝑅(𝑠)

.
1

Substitute, 𝑅(𝑠) = 𝑠 in the above equation.

1

1 1
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑠𝑇1+ )1 ( 𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑠𝑇 +
( 1)

𝐶(𝑠).
Do partial fractions of
1 �
𝐴 + 1)=
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠𝑇 𝑠 𝑠𝑇�+
+
= 1
=> 1 = 𝐴(𝑠𝑇 + 1)
𝑠(𝑠𝑇 +
+ 𝐵𝑠1) 𝑠(𝑠𝑇 +
1)
On both the sides, the denominator term is the same. So, they will get cancelled by each
other. Hence, equate the numerator terms.

1 = 𝐴(𝑠𝑇 + 1) + 𝐵𝑠

By equating the constant terms on both the sides, you will get 𝐴 = 1.

Substitute, 𝐴 = 1 and equate the coefficient of the s terms on both the sides.

0 = 𝑇 + 𝐵 => 𝐵 = −𝑇

Substitute, 𝐴 = 1 and 𝐵 = −𝑇 in partial fraction expansion of 𝐶(𝑠).

1 𝑇 �
1
𝐶(𝑠) = −
= 𝑇 (𝑠 1
�
−
𝑠 + 𝑇)
=> 1
𝑠𝑇 𝐶+(𝑠1) = 𝑠
− 1
𝑠𝑠 1
+
Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides. 𝑇

𝑐(𝑡) = (1 − 𝑒−(𝑡⁄𝑇)) 𝑢(𝑡)

The unit step response, 𝑐(𝑡) has both the transient and the steady state terms.

The transient term in the unit step response is -

𝑐𝑡𝑟(𝑡) = −𝑒−(𝑡⁄𝑇)𝑢(𝑡)
The steady state term in the unit step response is -

𝑐𝑠𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡)

50
 Control Systems

The following figure shows the unit step response.

The value of the unit step response, c(t) is zero at 𝑡 = 0 and for all negative values of
t. It is gradually increasing from zero value and finally reaches to one in steady state. So,
the steady state value depends on the magnitude of the input.

Ramp Response of First Order

System
Consider the unit ramp signal as an input to the first order system.

So, 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑢(𝑡).

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝑅(𝑠) =𝑠12 .

Consider the equation, 𝐶(𝑠) = (𝑠𝑇+

1
) 𝑅(𝑠)
1

Substitute, 𝑅(𝑠) = in the above equation.

1
𝑠2

1 1
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑠𝑇1+ )1 ( 𝑠2) = 𝑠2 (𝑠𝑇 +
( 1)
Do partial fractions of 𝐶(𝑠).
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐶(𝑠) = = + +
𝑠2(𝑠𝑇 + 1) 𝑠2 𝑠 𝑠𝑇 + 1
1
=> 𝐴(𝑠𝑇 + 1) + 𝐵𝑠(𝑠𝑇 + 1)
= + 𝐶𝑠2 𝑠 (𝑠𝑇 +
2

𝑠 (𝑠𝑇 + 1)
2 1)
On both the sides, the denominator term is the same. So, they will get cancelled by each
other. Hence, equate the numerator terms.

1 = 𝐴(𝑠𝑇 + 1) + 𝐵𝑠(𝑠𝑇 + 1) + 𝐶𝑠2

By equating the constant terms on both the sides, you will get 𝐴 = 1.

Substitute, 𝐴 = 1 and equate the coefficient of the s terms on both the sides.

0 = 𝑇 + 𝐵 => 𝐵 = −𝑇

Similarly, substitute 𝐵 = −𝑇 and equate the coefficient of 𝑠2 terms on both the sides. You
will get 𝐶 = 𝑇2.
51
 Control Systems

Substitute 𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = −𝑇 and 𝐶 = 𝑇2 in the partial fraction expansion of 𝐶(𝑠).

𝐶(𝑠) = 1 − 𝑇+ 𝑇2 = 1 −
+ 𝑇
𝑠2 𝑠 𝑠𝑇 𝑇
+21 𝑠2 𝑠 𝑇 (𝑠
1
+ 𝑇)
=> 𝐶(𝑠) = 1 − 𝑇
+ 𝑇
𝑠2 𝑠 𝑠
1
+𝑇
Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝑐(𝑡) = (𝑡 − 𝑇 + 𝑇𝑒−(𝑡⁄𝑇)) 𝑢(𝑡)

The unit ramp response, 𝑐(𝑡) has both the transient and the steady state terms.

The transient term in the unit ramp response is -

𝑐𝑡𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑇𝑒−(𝑡⁄𝑇)𝑢(𝑡)
The steady state term in the unit ramp response is -

𝑐𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) = (𝑡 − 𝑇)𝑢(𝑡)

The following figure shows the unit ramp response.

The unit ramp response, c(t) follows the unit ramp input signal for all positive values of
t. But, there is a deviation of T units from the input signal.

Parabolic Response of First Order

System
Consider the unit parabolic signal as an input to the first order system.
2

𝑟(𝑡)
2
So,

=𝑡
𝑢(𝑡).
Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝑅(𝑠) =𝑠13 .

Consider the equation, 𝐶(𝑠) = (𝑠𝑇+

1
) 𝑅(𝑠)
1

52
 Control Systems

Substitute 𝑅(𝑠) =𝑠13 in the above equation.

1 1
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑠𝑇1+ )1 ( 𝑠3) = 𝑠3 (𝑠𝑇 +
( 1)
Do partial fractions of 𝐶(𝑠).
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
𝐶(𝑠) = = + + +
𝑠3(𝑠𝑇 + 1) 𝑠3 𝑠2 𝑠 𝑠𝑇 + 1

After simplifying, you will get the values of A, B, C and D as 1, -T, 𝑇2 and −𝑇3 respectively.
Substitute these values in the above partial fraction expansion of 𝐶(𝑠).

𝐶(𝑠) = 1 − 𝑇 + 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 => 𝐶(𝑠) = 1 − + 𝑇2

− 𝑇
𝑠3 𝑠2 𝑠 𝑇2 𝑠𝑇 + 1 𝑠3 𝑠2 𝑠 𝑠
1
+𝑇
Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝑡2 𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = ( 2 − 𝑇𝑡 + 𝑇2 − 𝑇2𝑒−( ⁄𝑇))
𝑢(𝑡)
The unit parabolic response, 𝑐(𝑡) has both the transient and the steady state terms.

The transient term in the unit parabolic response is

𝑐𝑡𝑟(𝑡) = −𝑇2𝑒−(𝑡⁄𝑇)𝑢(𝑡)
The steady state term in the unit parabolic response is

𝑡2
𝑐𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) = (2 − 𝑇𝑡 + 𝑇2)
𝑢(𝑡)
From these responses, we can conclude that the first order control systems are not stable
with the ramp and parabolic inputs because these responses go on increasing even at
infinite amount of time. The first order control systems are stable with impulse and step
inputs because these responses have bounded output. But, the impulse response doesn’t
have steady state term. So, the step signal is widely used in the time domain for
analyzing the control systems from their responses.

53
 13. Response of Second Control Systems

Order System

In this chapter, let us discuss the time response of second order system. Consider the
following block diagram of closed loop control system. Here, an open loop transfer
𝜔2
𝑛
function, 𝑠(𝑠+2𝛿𝜔𝑛 is connected with a unity negative feedback.
)

We know that the transfer function of the closed loop control system having unity
negative feedback as
𝐶(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠)= 1 +
𝑅(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠)
𝜔2
Substitute, 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑠+2𝛿𝜔
𝑛
𝑛
in the above equation.
)
𝜔𝑛2
𝐶(𝑠 ( 𝑠( 𝑠 + )) 𝜔𝑛
=
2
) 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑛2 = 𝑠2 + 2𝛿𝜔 𝑠
𝜔 𝑛
𝑅(𝑠 1 + (𝑠( 𝑠 + )) + 𝜔2 𝑛
) 2𝛿𝜔𝑛
The power of ‘𝑠’ is two in the denominator term. Hence, the above transfer function is of
the second order and the system is said to be the second order system.

The characteristic equation is -

𝑠2 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑠 + 𝑛𝜔2 =
0.
The roots of characteristic equation are -

−2(𝛿𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛√𝛿2 −
𝑠 −2𝛿𝜔𝑛 ± √(2𝛿𝜔𝑛)2 − =
2 1) 2
= 4𝜔𝑛2

=> 𝑠 = −𝛿𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛√𝛿2 − 1

imaginary when 𝛿 = 0.
The two roots are

equal when 𝛿 = 1.
The two roots are real and

not equal when 𝛿 > 1.

The two roots are real but

conjugate when 0 < 𝛿 < 1.

The two roots are complex

54
 Control Systems

We can write 𝐶(𝑠) equation

as,
𝜔𝑛2 )
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑠2 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑠 𝑛 𝑅(𝑠)
( + 𝜔2
Where,
𝑪(𝒔) is the Laplace transform of the output signal, 𝑐(𝑡)
𝑹(𝒔) is the Laplace transform of the input signal, 𝑟(𝑡)
𝝎𝒏 is the natural frequency
𝜹 is the damping ratio.

Follow these steps to get the response (output) of the second order system in the time
domain.
Take Laplace transform of the input signal, 𝑟(𝑡).

𝜔2
 Consider the equation, 𝐶(𝑠) = (𝑠2+2𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑠+𝜔𝑛𝑛
) 𝑅(𝑠) 2

 Substitute 𝑅(𝑠) value in the above equation.

 Do partial fractions of 𝐶(𝑠) if required.

 Apply inverse Laplace transform to 𝐶(𝑠).

Step Response of Second Order System

Consider the unit step signal as an input to the second order

system. Laplace transform of the unit step signal is,

𝑅(𝑠) =𝑠
1
.
We know the transfer function of the second order closed loop control system is,

𝐶(𝑠 = 𝜔𝑛2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑠
2
𝑛
)
Case 1: 𝜹 = 𝟎 + 𝜔2
Substitute, 𝛿 = 0 in the transfer function.

𝐶(𝑠) = 𝜔𝑛2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠2 + 𝑛
𝜔2
𝜔𝑛2 )
=> 𝐶(𝑠) = (𝑠2 + 𝑛 𝑅(𝑠)
𝜔2
Substitute, 𝑅(𝑠) = 𝑠1 in the above equation.

𝜔𝑛2 ) ( 1) = 𝜔𝑛2
𝐶(𝑠) = 2
𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑠 𝑠(𝑠2 +
( 𝑛
𝜔2)
55
 Control Systems

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝑐(𝑡) = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑛𝑡))𝑢(𝑡)

So, the unit step response of the second order system when 𝛿 = 0 will be a continuous
time signal with constant amplitude and frequency.

Case 2: 𝜹 = 𝟏
Substitute, 𝛿 = 1 in the transfer function.

𝐶(𝑠=) 𝜔𝑛2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠2 + 2𝜔𝑛𝑠 𝑛
+ 𝜔2
𝜔𝑛2 )
=> 𝐶(𝑠) = ((𝑠 +
𝑅(𝑠)
𝜔𝑛)2
Substitute, 𝑅(𝑠) = 𝑠1 in the above equation.

𝜔𝑛2 1 𝜔𝑛2
𝐶(𝑠) = (𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛)2) ( 𝑠
)=
𝑠(𝑠 +
( 𝜔𝑛)2

𝐶(𝑠).
Do partial fractions of

𝜔𝑛2 𝐴 𝐵
= +
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛)2 𝐶 𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 (𝑠 +
+
= 𝜔𝑛)2
After simplifying, you will get the values of A, B and C as 1, -1 and −𝜔𝑛 respectively.
Substitute these values in the above partial fraction expansion of 𝐶(𝑠).
1 1 𝜔𝑛
𝐶(𝑠) = − −
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 (𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛)2

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝑐(𝑡) = (1 − 𝑒−𝜔𝑛𝑡 − 𝜔𝑛𝑡𝑒−𝜔𝑛𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)

So, the unit step response of the second order system will try to reach the step input in
steady state.

Case 3: 𝟎 < 𝜹 < 𝟏

We can modify the denominator term of the transfer function as follows:
𝑠2 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑠 + 𝜔2 = {𝑠2 + 2(𝑠)(𝛿𝜔 ) + (𝛿𝜔 )2} + 𝜔2 − (𝛿𝜔 )2
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

= (𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛) + 2 𝜔
𝑛 2( 1

The transfer function becomes, − 𝛿2)

𝐶(𝑠) = 𝜔𝑛2
𝑅(𝑠) (𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛)2 + 𝜔
𝑛 2( 1

− 𝛿2) 𝜔𝑛2
=> 𝐶(𝑠) = ( )
(𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛)2 + 𝜔
𝑛 2( 1 𝑅(𝑠)
− 𝛿2)

56
 Control Systems

Substitute, 𝑅(𝑠) = 𝑠1 in the above equation.

𝜔𝑛2 1 𝜔𝑛2
𝐶(𝑠) = )()=
(𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛)2 + 𝜔
𝑛 2( 1 𝑠 𝑠((𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛)2 + 𝑛𝜔2(1 −
(
Do partial fractions of − 𝛿2) 𝛿2 ) )
𝐶(𝑠).
𝜔𝑛2 � 𝐵𝑠
𝐶(𝑠) = =� +𝐶
𝑠((𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛)2 + 𝑛𝜔2(1 − 𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛)2 + 𝜔 𝑛 2(1
+
− 𝛿C2)as 1, -1 and −2𝛿𝜔𝑛 respectively.
𝛿2))get the values of A, B and
After simplifying, you will
Substitute these values in the above partial fraction expansion of C(s).
1 𝑠
+ 2𝛿𝜔𝑛
𝐶
𝑠 (𝑠(𝑠
) =+ 𝛿𝜔 )2 + 𝜔
𝑛 2(1
−
𝑛

1 𝑠−+𝛿2) 𝛿𝜔
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝛿𝜔
2 𝑛 2
− 2𝑛 2 2)
− 𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔 𝑛 2) + 𝜔 (1 ) (𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛 ) + 𝜔 (1
𝑛 𝑛
1 − 𝛿 (𝑠 + −𝛿𝛿 𝜔𝑛√1
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝛿𝜔 ) − 2( )
� − 𝛿
− (𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛)2 + (𝜔𝑛√1 − 𝛿2)2 √1 − 𝛿2 (𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛)2 + (𝜔𝑛√1 −
𝑛

Substitute, 𝜔 √1 − 𝛿𝛿
2)2
𝜔 in the above
�
2 as
𝑛 𝑑

𝜔
equation.
𝐶(𝑠) = − ( )
1 (𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛) 𝛿 √1
− 𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔 (𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔
2 2 2
𝑛 ) 𝑛 )
2 𝑑 2

𝑑 −𝛿
+ 𝜔 on both the sides. +𝜔 𝑑
Apply inverse Laplace transform
�
𝑒−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑑𝑡))
𝑐(𝑡) = (1 − 𝑒−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡 cos(𝜔
𝑑 𝑡)
√1 �
− 𝑢(𝑡)
− 𝛿2
𝑒−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = (1 − ((√1 − 𝛿2) cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡)
+ 𝛿 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡))) 𝑢(𝑡)
√1 − 𝛿2

If √1 − 𝛿2 = sin(𝜃), then ‘𝛿’ will be cos(𝜃). Substitute these

values in the above equation.
𝑒−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = (1 − (sin(𝜃) cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡) +
𝑐𝑜s(𝜃) sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡))) 𝑢(𝑡)
√1 − 𝛿2
𝑒−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡
=> 𝑐(𝑡) = (1 − ( ) sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)) 𝑢(𝑡)
√1 − 𝛿2

So, the unit step response of the second order system is

having damped oscillations (decreasing amplitude) when ‘𝛿’
lies between zero and one.

Case 4: 𝜹 > 𝟏
= (𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔 )2 − 𝜔
𝑛 2 ( 𝛿2 −
We can modify𝑛 the denominator term of the transfer
The transfer function becomes, 1) as follows:
function
𝑠2 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑠 + 𝜔2 = {𝑠2 + 2(𝑠)(𝛿𝜔 ) + (𝛿𝜔 )2} + 𝜔2 − (𝛿𝜔 )2
𝑛 𝐶(𝑠) = 𝜔𝑛2 𝑛
𝑛
𝑛 𝑛

𝑅(𝑠) (𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛) − 𝜔 𝛿 −
2 𝑛 2 ( 2

1) 57
 Control Systems

𝜔 2
𝑛
)
=> 𝐶(𝑠) = (
(𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛)2 − 𝜔
𝑛 2(𝛿2 − 𝑅(𝑠)

1)
Substitute, 𝑅(𝑠) = 𝑠1 in the above equation.

𝜔𝑛2 1 𝜔𝑛2
𝐶(𝑠) = 2) ()=
�
(𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛2) − (𝜔𝑛√𝛿 − 𝑠(𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛√𝛿 − 1 )(𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛 − 𝜔𝑛√𝛿2
2

( 2 � −1)
1)

𝐶(𝑠).
Do partial fractions of

𝜔𝑛2
𝐶(𝑠)
𝑠(𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛√𝛿2 − 1 )(𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛 − 𝜔𝑛√𝛿2
� = −𝐵1)
=� 𝐶 +
� 𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛√𝛿2 − 1 𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛 − 𝜔𝑛√𝛿2
+
� −1
1
After simplifying, you will get the values of A, B and C as 1, and
2(𝛿+√𝛿2−1)(√𝛿2−1)
−1
respectively. Substitute these values in above partial fraction expansion of
2(𝛿−√𝛿2−1)(√𝛿2−1)

𝐶(𝑠).
1 1
𝐶(𝑠) =� + (2(𝛿 + √𝛿2 1 )( )
− 1)(√𝛿2 − 1) 𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛√𝛿2 −
� 1 1
−( )( )
2(𝛿 − √𝛿2 1
− 1)(√𝛿2 − 1)

𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛 − 𝜔𝑛√𝛿2 − 1

Apply1inverse Laplace
𝑐(𝑡) = (1 + 2(𝛿 +the 2 − 1)(√𝛿2 − ) 𝑒
√𝛿sides.
−(𝛿𝜔𝑛+𝜔𝑛√𝛿2−1)𝑡
transform on both

( 1)
−( 1 2 − 1)
) 𝑒−(𝛿𝜔𝑛−𝜔𝑛 𝛿 −1)𝑡) 𝑢(𝑡)
2(𝛿 − √𝛿2 − 1)(√𝛿
√ 2

second order system when 𝛿 > 1 will never reach step

Since it is over damped, the unit step response of the

input in the steady state.

Impulse Response of Second Order

System
The impulse response of the second order system can be obtained by using any one of
these two methods.
Follow the procedure involved while deriving step response by considering the value
of 𝑅(𝑠) as 1 instead of 𝑠1.

 Do the differentiation of the step response.

58
 Control Systems

The following
table shows the

𝒕 ≥ 𝟎 of the
impulse
Condition of Damping ratio Impulse response for
response

𝛿 =0
second order
𝜔𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑛𝑡) system for 4
𝜔𝑛2𝑡𝑒−𝜔𝑛𝑡 damping ratio.
𝛿 =1
cases of the

𝜔𝑛𝑒−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡
0<𝛿 <1 ( ) sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡)
√1 − 𝛿2
𝜔𝑛 √
( ) (𝑒−(𝛿𝜔𝑛−𝜔𝑛 𝛿 −1)𝑡
2

𝛿 >1 2√𝛿2 − 1
− 𝑒−(𝛿𝜔𝑛+𝜔𝑛 𝛿 −1)𝑡)
√ 2

59
14. Control Systems − Time Domain Control Systems

Specifications

In this chapter, let us discuss the time domain specifications of the second order system.
The step response of the second order system for the underdamped case is shown in the
following figure.

All the time domain specifications are represented in this figure. The response up to the
settling time is known as transient response and the response after the settling time is
known as steady state response.

Delay
Time
instant. It is denoted by 𝒕𝒅.
It is the time required for the response to reach half of its final value from the zero

Consider the step response of the second order system for 𝑡 ≥ 0, when ‘𝛿’ lies between
zero and one.
𝑒−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = 1 − ( ) sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)
√1 − 𝛿2

The final value of the step response is one.

Therefore, at t=td, the value of the step response will be 0.5. Substitute, these values in the above
equation.
𝑒−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡𝑑
𝑐(𝑡𝑑 ) = 0.5 = 1 − ( ) sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑑 + 𝜃)
√1 − 𝛿2
𝑒−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡𝑑
=> ( √1 − 𝛿 ) sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑑 + 𝜃) = 0.5
2

time 𝒕𝒅 as
By using linear approximation, you will get the delay

𝑡𝑑 = 1 + 0.7𝛿
�𝑛
�
60
 Control Systems

Rise
Time
It is the time required for the response to rise from 0% to 100% of its final value. This

the duration from 10% to 90% of the final value. Rise time is denoted by 𝒕𝒓.
is applicable for the under-damped systems. For the over-damped systems, consider

At t= t1=0, c(t)=0.

We know that the final value of the step response is one.

Therefore, at t=t2, the value of step response is one. Substitute, these values in the following
equation.
𝑒−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = 1 − ( ) sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)
√1 − 𝛿2

𝑒−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡2
𝑐(𝑡2) = 1 = 1 − ( )
sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡2 + 𝜃)
√1 − 𝛿2
𝑒−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡2
=> ( ) sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡2 + 𝜃) = 0
√1 − 𝛿2
=> sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡2 + 𝜃) =
0

=> 𝜔𝑑 𝑡2 + 𝜃 = 𝜋
=> 𝑡 =
𝜋−𝜃 2 �𝑑
�

𝑡𝑟 = 𝑡2 −
Substitute t1 and t2 values in the following equation of rise time,

𝑡1
∴ 𝑡𝑟 =
𝜋−𝜃 �𝑑

From above equation, we can conclude that the rise time 𝑡𝑟 and the damped frequency
�

𝜔𝑑
are inversely proportional to each other.

Peak
Time
denoted by 𝒕𝒑. At 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑝, the first derivate of the response is zero.
It is the time required for the response to reach the peak value for the first time. It is

We know the step response of second order system for under-damped case is
𝑒−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = 1 − ( ) sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)
√1 − 𝛿2
Differentiate 𝑐(𝑡) with respect to ‘t’.

𝑑𝑐(𝑡 𝑒−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡
)𝑑 = − (√1 − 𝛿2) 𝜔𝑑 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃) − (√1 − ) sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 +
𝑡 𝜃) 𝛿−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑒
−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡
2

61
 Control Systems

Substitute, 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑝and 𝑑𝑐(𝑡)

𝑑
= 0 in the above equation.
𝑡
𝑒−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡𝑝
0=−( ) [𝜔𝑑 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃) −
𝛿𝜔𝑛sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃)]
√1 − 𝛿2

=> 𝜔𝑛√1 − 𝛿2 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃) − 𝛿𝜔𝑛 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝

+ 𝜃) = 0

=> √1 − 𝛿2 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃) − 𝛿 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃)

=0

=> sin(𝜃) cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃) − cos(𝜃) sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝

+ 𝜃) = 0
=> 𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝
=>=sin(𝜃
𝜋 − 𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 − 𝜃) = 0
=> 𝑡𝑝 𝜋
=> sin(−𝜔𝑑 𝑡
=𝑝) = 0 => − sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝) = 0 =>
𝑑

sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡From
𝜔
𝑝) = 0

conclude that the peak time 𝑡𝑝 and the

the above equation, we can

damped frequency 𝜔𝑑 are inversely

proportional to each other.
Peak
Overshoot
Peak overshoot Mp is defined as the deviation of the response at peak time from the final value of
response. It is also called the maximum overshoot.

Mathematically, we can write it as

𝑀𝑝 = 𝑐(𝑡𝑝) − 𝑐(∞)

Where,

𝑐(𝑡𝑝) is the peak value of the response.

𝑐(∞) is the final (steady state) value of the response.

At 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑝, the response c(t) is -

𝑒−𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡𝑝
𝑐(𝑡𝑝) = 1 − ( ) sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃)
√1 − 𝛿2

Substitute, 𝑡𝑝= 𝜋 in the right hand side of the above equation.

𝜔𝑑

𝑒−𝛿𝜔𝑛(𝜔𝑑)
𝜋

𝑐(𝑡𝑝) = 1 − 𝜋
( ) sin (𝜔𝑑 ( ) +
√1 − 𝜔
𝜃)
𝛿 2 𝑑

−(𝛿𝜋⁄ 2)

=> 𝑐(𝑡𝑝) = 1 𝑒
√1−𝛿

− √1 −
(−sin(𝜃))
𝛿2 )
(

62
 Control Systems

We know that

sin(𝜃) = √1 −
So, we will get 𝑐(𝑡𝑝) as 𝛿2

−(𝛿𝜋⁄
𝑐(𝑡𝑝) = 1 2 )
√1−𝛿

+𝑒
Substitute the values of 𝑐(𝑡𝑝) and 𝑐(∞) in the peak overshoot equation.

−(𝛿𝜋⁄
𝑀𝑝 = 1 + √1−𝛿
2)
−
𝑒 1
−(𝛿𝜋⁄
=> 𝑀𝑝 2 )
√1−𝛿

=𝑒
Percentage of peak overshoot % 𝑴𝒑 can be calculated by using this

𝑀
formula.

% 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑝 ×
𝑐(∞)
100%
By substituting the values of 𝑀𝑝 and 𝑐(∞) in above formula, we will get the Percentage of
the peak overshoot % 𝑴𝒑 as

−(𝛿𝜋⁄
% 𝑀𝑝 = (𝑒 √1−𝛿
2)
)×
100%
From the above equation, we can conclude that the percentage of peak overshoot % 𝑀𝑝
will decrease if the damping ratio 𝛿 increases.

Settling
time
It is the time required for the response to reach the steady state and stay within the

and 5%. The settling time is denoted by 𝒕𝒔.

specified tolerance bands around the final value. In general, the tolerance bands are 2%

The settling time for 5% tolerance band is -

3
𝑡𝑠 = =
𝛿 𝑛
3𝜏
𝜔
The settling time for 2% tolerance band is -
4
𝑡𝑠 = =
𝛿 𝑛
4𝜏
𝜔
Where, 𝜏 is the time constant and is equal to 1 .
𝛿𝜔𝑛

 Both the settling time 𝑡𝑠 and the time constant 𝜏 are inversely proportional to the
damping ratio 𝛿.

 Both the settling time 𝑡𝑠 and the time constant 𝜏 are independent of the system
gain. That means even the system gain changes, the settling time 𝑡𝑠 and time
constant 𝜏 will never change.

63
 Control Systems

Example
Let us now find the time domain specifications of a control system having the closed loop
4
𝑠2+2𝑠+
transfer function when the unit step signal is applied as an input to this control
system. 4

We know that the standard form of the transfer function of the second order closed loop
control system as

𝜔𝑛2
𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑠 𝑛
2

+ 𝜔2

𝝎𝒏
By equating these two transfer functions, we will get the un-damped natural frequency

as 2 rad/sec and the damping ratio 𝜹 as 0.5.

We know the formula for damped frequency 𝝎𝒅 as

𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛√1 − 𝛿2

Substitute, 𝜔𝑛 and 𝛿 values in the above formula.

=> 𝜔𝑑 = 2√1 − (0.5)2

=> 𝜔𝑑 = 1.732 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

Substitute, 𝛿 value in following relation

𝜋
=> 𝜃 =
𝜃 cos
−1(0.5) =
= cos −1 𝛿
𝑟𝑎𝑑 3
Substitute the above necessary
values in the formula of each time
domain specification and simplify in
order to get the values of time
domain specifications for given
transfer function.
Time domain Substitution of
The following table
Finalshows
value the
𝑡𝑑 = 1 + 0.7𝛿
Formula
1 + 0.7(0.5)
specification values in Formula
𝑡𝑑 = 𝑡 = 0.675 𝑠𝑒𝑐
formulae of time domain
Delay time 𝜔 specifications, 𝑑
substitution of
𝑛
2
necessary values and the final values.

𝑡𝑟 = 𝜋−𝜃 𝜋 − (𝜋⁄3)
𝜔 𝑡𝑟 = 1.207 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡𝑟 =
Rise time
𝑑

1.732
𝑡𝑝 𝜋
= 𝜋
𝜔 𝑡𝑝 = 1.813 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡𝑝 =
𝑑
1.732
Peak time

% 𝑀𝑝 % 𝑀𝑝
−(0.5𝜋 % 𝑀𝑝 = 16.32 %
= (𝑒
−(𝛿𝜋
)
⁄) )

√1−𝛿
2
= (𝑒
)
% Peak overshoot ⁄√1−(0.5)2

× 100%
× 100%
𝑡𝑠 = 4 4
𝛿𝜔 𝑡𝑠 = 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Settling time for
𝑡𝑠 =
2% tolerance band 𝑛 (0.5)(2)
64
15. Control Systems − Steady Control Systems

State Errors

is known as steady state error. It is represented as 𝒆𝒔𝒔. We can find steady state error
The deviation of the output of control system from desired response during steady state

using the final value theorem as follows.

𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑒(𝑡) = lim 𝑠𝐸(𝑠)
𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0

Where,

𝐸(𝑠) is the Laplace transform of the error signal, 𝑒(𝑡).

Let us discuss how to find steady state errors for unity feedback and non-unity feedback
control systems one by one.

Steady State Errors for Unity Feedback

Systems
Consider the following block diagram of closed loop control system, which is having unity
negative feedback.

Where,
𝑅(𝑠) is the Laplace transform of the reference input signal 𝑟(𝑡)
𝐶(𝑠) is the Laplace transform of the output signal 𝑐(𝑡)

We know the transfer function of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system
as
𝐶(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠)= 1 +
𝑅(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠)
𝑅(𝑠)𝐺(
=> 𝐶(𝑠) 𝑠)
1+
=
𝐺(𝑠)
The output of the summing point is -

𝐸(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠) − 𝐶(𝑠)

65
 Control Systems

Substitute 𝐶(𝑠) value in the above

𝑅(𝑠)𝐺(
equation.
𝐸(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠) 1 𝑠)+
− 𝐺(𝑠)
𝑅(𝑠) + 𝑅(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠) −
=> 𝐸(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺(𝑠)
𝑅(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠)
=> 𝐸(𝑠) 1 +
= 𝐺(𝑠)
Substitute 𝐸(𝑠) value in the steady state error
formula
𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠→0 1 + 𝑠𝑅(𝑠)
lim
𝐺(𝑠)
The following table shows the steady state errors and the error constants for standard
input signals like unit step, unit ramp & unit parabolic signals.

Input signal Steady state error 𝒆𝒔𝒔 Error constant

1 𝐾𝑝 = lim 𝐺(𝑠)
1 + 𝐾𝑝 𝑠→0
unit step signal

1 𝐾𝑣 = lim 𝑠𝐺(𝑠)
𝐾𝑣 𝑠→0
unit ramp signal

1 𝐾𝑎 = lim 𝑠2𝐺(𝑠)
𝐾𝑎 𝑠→0
unit parabolic signal

Where, 𝐾𝑝, 𝐾𝑣 and 𝐾𝑎 are position error constant, velocity error constant and acceleration
error constant respectively.

Note: If any of the above input signals has the amplitude other than unity, then multiply
corresponding steady state error with that amplitude.

Note: We can’t define the steady state error for the unit impulse signal because, it exists
only at origin. So, we can’t compare the impulse response with the unit impulse input as
t denotes infinity.

Example
2
= (5 + 2𝑡 +2) 𝑢(𝑡) of unity negative
𝑡
Let us find the steady state error for an input signal ( )
𝑟𝑡 5(𝑠+4)
feedback control system with 𝐺(𝑠) 𝑠2(𝑠+1) .
= (𝑠+20)

66
 Control Systems

The given input

signal is a
combination of
three signals
Input signal Error constant Steady statestep,
errorramp and

𝐾𝑝 = lim 𝐺(𝑠) = ∞ 𝑒𝑠𝑠1 = =5 0 following table

parabolic. The
𝑟1(𝑡) = 5𝑢(𝑡) 𝑠→0
1+𝐾
𝑝 shows the error

𝐾𝑣 = lim 𝑠𝐺(𝑠) = ∞ 𝑒𝑠𝑠2 = = 0 2

𝑟2(𝑡) = 2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
constants and
𝑠→0
𝐾
𝑣
steady state

𝑡2
𝑒𝑠𝑠3 = = 1 1 these three
error values for
𝑟3(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡) 𝐾𝑎 = lim 𝑠2𝐺(𝑠) = 1 𝐾
2 𝑠→0
𝑎 signals.

We will get the overall steady state error, by adding the above three steady state errors.

𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑒𝑠𝑠1 + 𝑒𝑠𝑠2 + 𝑒𝑠𝑠3

=> 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 0 + 0 + 1 = 1

Therefore, we got the steady state error 𝑒𝑠𝑠 as 1 for this example.

Steady State Errors for Non-Unity Feedback

Systems
Consider the following block diagram of closed loop control system, which is having non-
unity negative feedback.

We can find the steady state errors only for the unity feedback systems. So, we have to
convert the non-unity feedback system into unity feedback system. For this, include one
unity positive feedback path and one unity negative feedback path in the above block
diagram. The new block diagram looks like as shown below.

67
 Control Systems

Simplify the
above block
diagram by
keeping the
unity negative
feedback as it
is. The
following is the
simplified block
diagram.

This block diagram resembles the block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed
𝐺(𝑠
loop control system. Here, the single block is having the transfer function )
1+𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)
instead of 𝐺(𝑠). You can now calculate the steady state errors by using steady−𝐺(𝑠)
state error
formula given for the unity negative feedback systems.

Note: It is meaningless to find the steady state errors for unstable closed loop systems.
So, we have to calculate the steady state errors only for closed loop stable systems. This
means we need to check whether the control system is stable or not before finding the
steady state errors. In the next chapter, we will discuss the concepts-related stability.

68
 16. Control Systems − Control Systems

Stability

Stability is an important concept. In this chapter, let us discuss the stability of system and
types of systems based on stability.

What is
Stability?
A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be
unstable. A stable system produces a bounded output for a given bounded input.

The following figure shows the response of a stable system.

This is the response of first order control system for unit step input. This response has the
values between 0 and 1. So, it is bounded output. We know that the unit step signal has
the value of one for all positive values of t including zero. So, it is bounded input.
Therefore, the first order control system is stable since both the input and the output are
bounded.

Types of Systems based on

Stability
We can classify the systems based on stability as follows.
Absolutely stable system

Conditionally stable system

Marginally stable system

Absolutely Stable System

If the system is stable for all the range of system component values, then it is known as
the absolutely stable system. The open loop control system is absolutely stable if all
the poles of the open loop transfer function present in left half of ‘s’ plane. Similarly, the
closed loop control system is absolutely stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer
function present in the left half of the ‘s’ plane.

69
 Control Systems

Conditionally Stable System

If the system is stable for a certain range of system component values, then it is known
as conditionally stable system.

Marginally Stable System

If the system is stable by producing an output signal with constant amplitude and
constant frequency of oscillations for bounded input, then it is known as marginally
stable system. The open loop control system is marginally stable if any two poles of the
open loop transfer function is present on the imaginary axis. Similarly, the closed loop
control system is marginally stable if any two poles of the closed loop transfer function is
present on the imaginary axis.

70
 17. Control Systems − Control Systems

Stability Analysis

In this chapter, let us discuss the stability analysis in the ‘s’ domain using the Routh-
Hurwitz stability criterion. In this criterion, we require the characteristic equation to find
the stability of the closed loop control systems.

Routh-Hurwitz Stability
Criterion
Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion is having one necessary condition and one sufficient
condition for stability. If any control system doesn’t satisfy the necessary condition, then
we can say that the control system is unstable. But, if the control system satisfies the
necessary condition, then it may or may not be stable. So, the sufficient condition is
helpful for knowing whether the control system is stable or not.

Necessary Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability

The necessary condition is that the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial should be
positive. This implies that all the roots of the characteristic equation should have
negative real parts.

Consider the characteristic equation of the order ‘n’ is -

𝑎0𝑠𝑛 + 𝑎1𝑠𝑛−1 + 𝑎2𝑠𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑠1 + 𝑎𝑛𝑠0 = 0

Note that, there should not be any term missing in the nth order characteristic equation.
This means that the nth order characteristic equation should not have any coefficient that
is of zero value.

Sufficient Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability

The sufficient condition is that all the elements of the first column of the Routh array
should have the same sign. This means that all the elements of the first column of the
Routh array should be either positive or negative.

Routh Array
Method
If all the roots of the characteristic equation exist to the left half of the ‘s’ plane, then the
control system is stable. If at least one root of the characteristic equation exists to the
right half of the ‘s’ plane, then the control system is unstable. So, we have to find the
roots of the characteristic equation to know whether the control system is stable or
unstable. But, it is difficult to find the roots of the characteristic equation as order
increases.

So, to overcome this problem there we have the Routh array method. In this method,
there is no need to calculate the roots of the characteristic equation. First formulate the
Routh table and find the number of the sign changes in the first column of the Routh
table. The number of sign changes in the first column of the Routh table gives the
number of roots of characteristic equation that exist in the right half of the ‘s’ plane and
the control system is unstable.

71
 Control Systems

Follow this procedure for forming the Routh table.

Fill the first two rows of the Routh array with the coefficients of the characteristic
polynomial as mentioned in the table below. Start with the coefficient of sn and continue
up to the coefficient of s0.

Fill the remaining rows of the Routh array with the elements as mentioned in the table

below. Continue this process till you get the first column element of row s0 is an. Here, an is
the coefficient of s0 in the characteristic polynomial.

Note: If any row elements of the Routh table have some common factor, then you can
divide the row elements with that factor for the simplification will be easy.

The following table shows the Routh array of the nth order characteristic polynomial.

𝑎0𝑠𝑛 +𝒔𝑎𝒏1𝑠𝑛−1 + 𝑎2𝑠𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑠1 + 𝑎𝑛𝑠0

⋯ ⋯
𝒔𝒏−𝟏 ⋯ ⋯
a0 a2 a4 a6

𝑎1𝑎2 − 𝑎3𝑎0 𝑎1𝑎4 − 𝑎5𝑎0 𝑎1𝑎6 − 𝑎7𝑎0

a1 a3 a5 a7
𝑏1 = 𝑏2 = 𝑏3 = ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
𝒔𝒏−𝟐
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏1𝑎3 − 𝑏2𝑎1 𝑏1𝑎5 − 𝑏3𝑎1
1 1 1

𝑐1 = 𝑐2 = ⋮
𝒔𝒏−𝟑
𝑏
𝑏 1
1
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝒔𝟏 ⋮ ⋮
𝒔𝟎
an

Example
Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic equation,

𝑠4 + 3𝑠3 + 3𝑠2 + 2𝑠 + 1 = 0

Step 1: Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial, 𝑠4 + 3𝑠3 + 3𝑠2 + 2𝑠 + 1 are positive.
So, the control system satisfies the necessary condition.

Step 2: Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial.
s4 1 3 1

(3 × 3) − (2 × 1) (3 × 1) − (0 × 1) 3
s3 3 2
7 = =1
= 3 3
3
s2

3
7
5
3 =
s1
7 7
3
s0 1

72
 Control Systems

Step 3: Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the elements of the first column of the Routh array are positive. There is no sign
change in the first column of the Routh array. So, the control system is stable.

Special Cases of Routh

Array
We may come across two types of situations, while forming the Routh table. It is difficult
to complete the Routh table from these two situations.

The two special cases are:

The first element of any row of the Routh array is zero.

All the elements of any row of the Routh array are zero.

Let us now discuss how to overcome the difficulty in these two cases, one by one.

First Element of any row of the Routh array is zero

If any row of the Routh array contains only the first element as zero and at least one of

positive integer, 𝜖. And then continue the process of completing the Routh table. Now,
the remaining elements have non-zero value, then replace the first element with a small

find the number of sign changes in the first column of the Routh table by substituting 𝜖
tends to zero.

Example
Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic equation,

𝑠4 + 2𝑠3 + 𝑠2 + 2𝑠 + 1 = 0

Step 1: Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial, 𝑠4 + 2𝑠3 + 𝑠2 + 2𝑠 + 1 are positive. So,
the control system satisfied the necessary condition.

Step 2: Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial.
[

The row s3 elements have 2 as the common factor. So, all these elements are divided by
2.

73
 Control Systems

Special case
(i): Only the
s4
first element of
1 1 1
row s2 is zero.

𝜖 and continue
s3 1 1 So, replace it by

s2 𝜖 1 the process of
(𝜖 × 1) − (1 × 1) 𝜖−
1
completing the
=
s1

𝜖 𝜖
Routh table.

s0 1

Step 3: Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

As 𝜖 tends to zero, the Routh table becomes like this.

s4 1 1 1
s3 1 1
s2 0 1
s1 −∞
s0 1

There are two sign changes in the first column of Routh table. Hence, the control system
is unstable.

All the Elements of any row of the Routh array are zero
In this case, follow these two steps:
Write the auxilary equation, A(s) of the row, which is just above the row of zeros.

Differentiate the auxiliary equation, A(s) with respect to s. Fill the row of zeros with
these coefficients.

Example
Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic equation,

𝑠5 + 3𝑠4 + 𝑠3 + 3𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 3 = 0

Step 1: Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the coefficients of the given characteristic polynomial are positive. So, the control
system satisfied the necessary condition.

74
 Control Systems

Step 2: Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial.

The row s4 elements have the common factor of 3. So, all these elements are divided by
3.

Special case (ii): All the elements of row s3 are zero. So, write the auxiliary equation,
A(s) of the row s4.

𝐴(𝑠) = 𝑠4 + 𝑠2 + 1

𝑑𝐴(𝑠)
Differentiate the above equation with respect to s.

= 4𝑠3 + 2𝑠
𝑑
𝑠
Place these coefficients in row s3.

Step 3: Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

There are two sign changes in the first column of Routh table. Hence, the control system
is unstable.

In the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, we can know whether the closed loop poles are in
on left half of the ‘s’ plane or on the right half of the ‘s’ plane or on an imaginary axis. So,
we can’t find the nature of the control system. To overcome this limitation, there is a
technique known as the root locus. We will discuss this technique in the next two
chapters.

75
 18. Control Systems − Control Systems

Root Locus

In the root locus diagram, we can observe the path of the closed loop poles. Hence, we
can identify the nature of the control system. In this technique, we will use an open loop
transfer function to know the stability of the closed loop control system.

Basics of Root
Locus
gain 𝐾 from zero to infinity.
The Root locus is the locus of the roots of the characteristic equation by varying system

We know that, the characteristic equation of the closed loop control system is

1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 0

We can represent 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) as

𝑁(𝑠
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) )𝐷(𝑠
=𝐾 )
Where,
𝐾 represents the multiplying factor
𝑁(𝑠) represents the numerator term having (factored) nth order polynomial of ‘s’
𝐷(𝑠) represents the denominator term having (factored) mth order polynomial of ‘s’.

Substitute, 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) value in the characteristic equation.

𝑁(𝑠)
1+𝐾 =0
𝐷(𝑠)

=> 𝐷(𝑠) + 𝐾 𝑁(𝑠) = 0

Case 1: 𝑲 = 𝟎
If 𝐾 = 0, then 𝐷(𝑠) = 0.

That means, the closed loop poles are equal to open loop poles when 𝐾 is zero.

Case 2: 𝑲 = ∞
Re-write the above characteristic equation as
1 𝑁(𝑠) 1 𝑁(𝑠)
𝐾( + ) = 0 => + =0
𝐾 𝐷(𝑠) 𝐾 𝐷(𝑠)

Substitute, 𝐾 = ∞ in the above equation.

1 𝑁(𝑠) 𝑁(𝑠)
+ = 0 => = 0 => 𝑁(𝑠) = 0
∞ 𝐷(𝑠) 𝐷(𝑠)

76
 Control Systems

If 𝐾 = ∞,
then 𝑁(𝑠) = 0.
It means the
closed loop
poles are equal
to the open loop
zeros when K is
infinity.

From above two

cases, we can
conclude that
the root locus
branches start
at open loop
poles and end
at open loop
zeros.
0
∠𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = tan−1 (
−1 ) = (2𝑛 +
Angle
1)𝜋 Condition
The angle condition is the point at which the angle of the open
and
loop transfer function is an odd multiple of 1800.
Magnitude
Magnitude of G(s)H(s) is - Condition
|𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)| = √(−1)2 + 02 = 1 The points on
the root locus
The magnitude condition is that the point branches satisfy
(which satisfied
the angle
the angle condition) at which the magnitude of the open
loop transfer function is one. condition. So,
the angle
condition is
used to know
whether the
point exist on
root locus
branch or not.

value of 𝐾 for
We can find the

the points on
the root locus
branches by
using
magnitude
condition. So,
we can use the
magnitude
condition for the
points, and this
satisfies the
angle condition.

Characteristic
equation of
77
closed loop
control system
is

1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) =
 19. Construction of Control Systems

Root Locus

The root locus is a graphical representation in s-domain and it is symmetrical about the
real axis. Because the open loop poles and zeros exist in the s-domain having the values
either as real or as complex conjugate pairs. In this chapter, let us discuss how to
construct (draw) the root locus.

Rules for Construction of Root

Locus
Follow these rules for constructing a root locus.

Rule 1: Locate the open loop poles and zeros in the ‘s’ plane.

Rule 2: Find the number of root locus branches.

zeros. So, the number of root locus branches 𝑵 is equal to the number of finite open loop
We know that the root locus branches start at the open loop poles and end at open loop

poles 𝑷 or the number of finite open loop zeros 𝒁, whichever is greater.

Mathematically, we can write the number of root locus branches 𝑵 as

𝑵 = 𝑷 if 𝑷 ≥ 𝒁

𝑵=𝒁 if 𝑷 < 𝒁

Rule 3: Identify and draw the real axis root locus branches.

If the angle of the open loop transfer function at a point is an odd multiple of 1800, then
that point is on the root locus. If odd number of the open loop poles and zeros exist to the
left side of a point on the real axis, then that point is on the root locus branch. Therefore,
the branch of points which satisfies this condition is the real axis of the root locus
branch.

Rule 4: Find the centroid and the angle of asymptotes.

If 𝑃 = 𝑍, then all the root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at finite
open loop zeros.

If 𝑃 > 𝑍 , then 𝑍 number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end
at finite open loop zeros and 𝑃 − 𝑍 number of root locus branches start at finite open
loop poles and end at infinite open loop zeros.

If 𝑃 < 𝑍 , then 𝑃 number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end
at finite open loop zeros and 𝑍 − 𝑃 number of root locus branches start at infinite open

So, some of the root locus branches approach infinity, when 𝑃 ≠ 𝑍. Asymptotes give the
loop poles and end at finite open loop zeros.

direction of these root locus branches. The intersection point of asymptotes on the real
axis is known as centroid.

We can calculate the centroid 𝜶 by using this formula,

∑ 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
𝛼 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 − ∑ 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠
𝑃
=
−𝑍
78
 Control Systems

The formula for the angle of asymptotes 𝜽 is

(2𝑞 + 1)1800
𝜃
𝑃
=
−𝑍
Where,

𝑞 = 0, 1, 2, … . , (𝑃 − 𝑍) − 1

Rule 5: Find the intersection points of root locus branches with an imaginary axis.

and the value of 𝑲 at that point by using the Routh array method and special case (ii).
We can calculate the point at which the root locus branch intersects the imaginary axis

If all elements of any row of the Routh array are zero, then the root locus branch
intersects the imaginary axis and vice-versa.

elements of the entire row are zero. Find the value of 𝑲 for this combination.
Identify the row in such a way that if we make the first element as zero, then the

Substitute this 𝑲 value in the auxiliary equation. You will get the intersection point of
the root locus branch with an imaginary axis.

Rule 6: Find Break-away and Break-in points.

If there exists a real axis root locus branch between two open loop poles, then there will
be a break-away point in between these two open loop poles.

If there exists a real axis root locus branch between two open loop zeros, then there will
be a break-in point in between these two open loop zeros.

Note: Break-away and break-in points exist only on the real axis root locus branches.

Follow these steps to find break-away and break-in points.

Write 𝐾 in terms of 𝑠 from the characteristic equation 1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 0.

Differentiate 𝐾 with respect to 𝑠 and make it equal to zero. Substitute these values of 𝑠
in the above equation.

The values of 𝑠 for which the 𝐾 value is positive are the break points. Rule 7: Find the

angle of departure and the angle of arrival.

The Angle of departure and the angle of arrival can be calculated at complex conjugate
open loop poles and complex conjugate open loop zeros respectively.

The formula for the angle of departure ∅𝒅 is

∅𝑑 = 1800 − ∅

The formula for the angle of arrival ∅𝒂 is

∅𝑎 = 1800 + ∅

Where,

∅ = ∑ ∅𝑃 − ∑ ∅𝑍

79
 Control Systems

Example
Let us now draw the root locus of the control system having open loop transfer function,
�
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠+1) .
=
�
(𝑠+5)
Step 1: The given open loop transfer function has three poles at 𝑠 = 0, 𝑠 = −1 and 𝑠 =
−5. It doesn’t have any zero. Therefore, the number of root locus branches is equal to
the number of poles of the open loop transfer function.

𝑁=𝑃= 3

The three poles are located are shown in the above figure. The line segment between 𝑠 =
−1 and 𝑠 = 0 is one branch of root locus on real axis. And the other branch of the root
locus on the real axis is the line segment to the left of 𝑠 = −5.

Step 2: We will get the values of the centroid and the angle of asymptotes by using the
given formulae.

Centroid 𝛼 = −2

The angle of asymptotes are 𝜃 = 600, 1800 and 3000.

The centroid and three asymptotes are shown in the following figure.

80
 Control Systems

Step3: Since
two asymptotes

of 600 and 3000,

have the angles

two root locus

branches
intersect the
imaginary axis.
By using the
Routh array
method and
special case(ii),
the root locus

branches

intersects the

imaginary axis at

𝑗√5 and −𝑗√5.

There will be
one break-away
point on the real
axis root locus
In this way, you can draw the root locus diagram of any control system and observe the
branch between
movement of poles of the closed loop transfer function.
𝑠 = −1 𝑠=
the poles

0.
From the root locus diagrams, we can know the range of K values for different andof
types
damping. By following
the procedure
given for the
Effects of Adding Open Loop Poles and Zeros on Root Locus
calculation of
The root locus can be shifted in ‘s’ plane by adding the open loop poles and the open
break-away

get it as 𝑠 =
loop zeros. point, we will

−0.473.
will move towards right half of ‘s’ plane. Because of this, the damping ratio 𝛿 decreases.
If we include a pole in the open loop transfer function, then some of root locus branches

Which implies, damped frequency 𝜔𝑑 increases and the time domain specifications
delay time 𝑡𝑑 , rise time 𝑡𝑟 and peak time 𝑡𝑝 decrease.
The root locus like
diagram for the
But, it effects the system stability. given control
system is shown
in the following
If we include a zero in the open loop transfer function, then some of root locus branches
figure.

this case, the damping ratio 𝛿 increases. Which implies, damped frequency 𝜔𝑑 decreases
will move towards left half of ‘s’ plane. So, it will increase the control system stability. In

𝑡𝑑, rise time 𝑡𝑟 and peak time 𝑡𝑝 increase.

and the time domain specifications like delay time

So, based on the requirement, we can include (add) the open loop poles or zeros to the
transfer function.

81
 20. Frequency Response Control Systems

Analysis

We have already discussed time response analysis of the control systems and the time
domain specifications of the second order control systems. In this chapter, let us discuss
the frequency response analysis of the control systems and the frequency domain
specifications of the second order control systems.

What is Frequency
Response?
The response of a system can be partitioned into both the transient response and the
steady state response. We can find the transient response by using Fourier integrals. The
steady state response of a system for an input sinusoidal signal is known as the
frequency response. In this chapter, we will focus only on the steady state response.

If a sinusoidal signal is applied as an input to a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system, then it

produces the steady state output, which is also a sinusoidal signal. The input and output
sinusoidal signals have the same frequency, but different amplitudes and phase angles.

Let the input signal be:

𝑟(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔0𝑡)

The open loop transfer function will be:

𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑗𝜔)

We can represent 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) in terms of magnitude and phase as shown below.

𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| ∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔)

Substitute, 𝜔 = 𝜔0 in the above equation.

𝐺(𝑗𝜔0) = |𝐺(𝑗𝜔0)| ∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔0)

The output signal is

𝑐(𝑡) = 𝐴|𝐺(𝑗𝜔0)| sin(𝜔0𝑡 + ∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔0))

of the input sinusoidal signal and the magnitude of 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) at 𝜔 = 𝜔0.

The amplitude of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by multiplying the amplitude

sinusoidal signal and the phase of 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) at 𝜔 = 𝜔0.

The phase of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by adding the phase of the input

Where,
𝑨 is the amplitude of the input sinusoidal signal.
𝝎𝟎 is angular frequency of the input sinusoidal signal.

We can write, angular frequency 𝜔0 as shown below.

𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0

82
 Control Systems

Here, 𝑓0 is the
frequency of the
input sinusoidal
signal. Similarly,
Frequency Domain you can follow
Specifications
The frequency domain specifications are resonant peak, resonant frequency the sameand
bandwidth. procedure for
closed loop
Consider the transfer function of the second order closed loop control system as, system.
control
𝐶(𝑠 𝜔𝑛2
𝑇(𝑠) =)𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠2 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑠 𝑛
= + 𝜔2
Substitute, 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 in the above equation.

𝜔𝑛2
𝑇(𝑗𝜔) (𝑗𝜔)2 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛(𝑗𝜔) 𝑛
= + 𝜔2
𝜔𝑛2 = 𝜔𝑛2
=> 𝑇(𝑗𝜔) −𝜔2 + 2𝑗𝛿𝜔𝜔𝑛 𝑛 𝜔𝑛2 (1 −𝜔2 + )
= + 𝜔2 𝜔𝑛2
𝜔
2𝑗𝛿
𝜔𝑛
1
=> 𝑇(𝑗𝜔)
(1 − 𝜔22 ) + 𝑗 (� )
= �𝑛 2𝛿𝑛
𝜔
Let, 𝜔 = 𝑢. Substitute this value in the above equation.
� �
𝜔𝑛

1
𝑇(𝑗𝜔) =
(1 − 𝑢2) + 𝑗(2𝛿𝑢)

Magnitude of 𝑇(𝑗𝜔) is -
1
𝑀 = |𝑇(𝑗𝜔)| =√(1 − 𝑢2)2 +
(2𝛿𝑢)2
Phase of 𝑇(𝑗𝜔) is
2𝛿𝑢
∠𝑇(𝑗𝜔) = − tan−1 (
-
) 1−
𝑢2
Resonant Frequency
It is the frequency at which the magnitude of the frequency response has peak value for
the first time. It is denoted by 𝜔𝑟. At 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑟, the first derivate of the magnitude of 𝑇(𝑗𝜔)
is zero.

Differentiate 𝑀 with respect to 𝑢.

𝑑𝑀 1
= − [(1 − 𝑢2)2 + (2𝛿𝑢)2]−3⁄2[2(1 − 𝑢2)(−2𝑢) + 2(2𝛿𝑢)(2𝛿)]
𝑑𝑢
2 𝑑𝑀 1
=> = − [(1 − 𝑢2)2 + (2𝛿𝑢)2]−3⁄2[4𝑢(𝑢2 −
𝑑𝑢
1 + 2𝛿 )
2 ]
2
Substitute, 𝑢 = 𝑢𝑟and 𝑑𝑢= 0 in the above equation.
𝑑𝑀

1 2
0 = −2 [(1 −𝑟 𝑢 ) + (2𝛿𝑢
𝑟 2 −3⁄)2 ] [4𝑢
2 2 𝑟 2
𝑟
(𝑢 − 1 + 2𝛿 )] 83
 Control Systems

=> 4𝑢𝑟(𝑢𝑟2 − 1 + 2𝛿2) =

0
=> 𝑢𝑟2 − 1 + 2𝛿2 =
0
=> 𝑢𝑟2 = 1 −
2𝛿2
=> 𝑢𝑟 = √1 −
2𝛿2
Substitute, 𝑢𝑟= 𝜔𝜔
𝑟

𝜔𝑟
in
𝑛
the above equation.

= √1 − 2𝛿2
𝜔𝑛

=> 𝜔𝑟 = 𝜔𝑛√1 − 2𝛿2

Resonant Peak
It is the peak (maximum) value of the magnitude of 𝑇(𝑗𝜔). It is denoted by 𝑀𝑟.

At 𝑢 = 𝑢𝑟, the Magnitude of 𝑇(𝑗𝜔) is - 1

𝑀𝑟 =
√(1 − 𝑢𝑟2)2 +
(2𝛿𝑢 )2𝑟
Substitute, 𝑢𝑟 = √1 − 2𝛿2 and 1 − 𝑢𝑟 2 = 2𝛿2 in the above
1
𝑀𝑟 =
equation.

√(2𝛿2)2 + (2𝛿√1 −
2𝛿2)2
1
=> 𝑀𝑟 =
2𝛿√1 − 𝛿2
Resonant peak in frequency response
corresponds to the peak overshoot in the

values of damping ratio 𝛿. So, the resonant

time domain transient response for certain

peak and peak overshoot are correlated to

each other.

Bandwidth
It is the range of frequencies over which, the
magnitude of 𝑇(𝑗𝜔) drops to 70.7% from its
1
𝑀= =
zero frequency value.

1 √(1 − 02)2At
+𝜔 =(0
(2𝛿 0,))the
2 value of 𝑢 will be zero.

Substitute, 𝑢 = 0 in 𝑀.
Therefore, the magnitude of 𝑇(𝑗𝜔) is one at 𝜔 = 0.

At 3-dB frequency, the magnitude of 𝑇(𝑗𝜔) will be 70.7% of magnitude of 𝑇(𝑗𝜔) at 𝜔 =

i.e., at 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑏 , 𝑀 = 0.707(1) =
√2 0.
1
1

=> 𝑀 = 1=
√2 √(1 − 𝑢𝑏2)2 +
(2𝛿𝑢𝑏) 2

=> 2 = (1 − 𝑢𝑏2)2 +
(2𝛿)2𝑢𝑏2
84
 Control Systems

Let, 𝑢𝑏2 = 𝑥

=> 2 = (1 − 𝑥)2 +
(2𝛿)2𝑥

=> 𝑥2 + (4𝛿2 − 2)𝑥 − 1

=> 𝑥 = −0(4𝛿 − 2) ± √(4𝛿 − 2) +
2 2 2

4 2
=
Consider only the positive value of 𝑥.

𝑥 = 1 − 2𝛿2 + √(2𝛿2 − 1)2 + 1

=> 𝑥 = 12− 2𝛿2 + √2 − 4𝛿2 + 4𝛿4

Substitute, 𝑥 = 𝑢 2 = 𝑏 .
𝜔
𝑏 𝜔𝑛2

𝜔𝑏
2 = 1 − 2𝛿2 +

𝜔𝑛2 √2 − 4𝛿2 +
=> 𝜔𝑏 = 𝜔𝑛√1 − 2𝛿24𝛿
+ √2 − 4𝛿2 + 4𝛿4
4

Bandwidth 𝜔𝑏 in the frequency response is inversely

proportional to the rise time 𝑡𝑟 in the time domain transient
response.

85
 21. Control Systems − Control Systems

Bode Plots

The Bode plot or the Bode diagram consists of two plots:

Magnitude plot

Phase plot

In both the plots, x-axis represents angular frequency (logarithmic scale). Whereas, y-
axis represents the magnitude (linear scale) of open loop transfer function in the
magnitude plot and the phase angle (linear scale) of the open loop transfer function in
the phase plot.

The magnitude of the open loop transfer function in dB is -

𝑀 = 20 log |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)𝐻(𝑗𝜔)|

The phase angle of the open loop transfer function in degrees is -

∅ = ∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔)𝐻(𝑗𝜔)

Note: The base of logarithm is 10.

Basics of Bode
Plots
The following table shows the slope, magnitude and the phase angle values of the terms
present in the open loop transfer function. This data is useful while drawing the Bode
plots.
Type of Slope Phase angle
G(𝒋𝛚)H(𝒋𝛚) Magnitude (dB)
term (dB/dec) (degrees)

Constant K 0 20 log K 0

jω 20 log ω
Zero at
20 90
origin

(jω)𝑛 20 n log ω
‘n’ zeros
20 n 90 n
at origin
1
-20 log ω
jω
Pole at
-20 -90 or 270
origin
1
-20 n log ω
(jω)𝑛
‘n’ poles
-20 n -90 n or 270 n
at origin

0 for ω < 1
0 for ω < 1

𝜏 𝜏
1 + jω𝜏
Simple
20 log ω𝜏 for ω > 90 for ω >
20
zero 1 1

𝜏 𝜏

0 for ω < 1

1
0 for ω <
𝜏 1

1 + jω𝜏
Simple
-20 log ω𝜏 for ω >
𝜏
-20 1
pole
𝜏

86
 Control Systems

ω>1
-90 or 270 for
𝜏

40 log ω𝑛 for ω < ω𝑛

0 for ω < ω𝑛
20 log (2𝛿ω𝑛2) for ω =
𝜔2 2 2𝑗𝛿𝜔 90 for ω = ω𝑛
Second
𝜔 (1 − + 40 ω𝑛
)
order
𝜔2 180 for ω > ω𝑛
𝜔
𝑛
40 log ω for ω > ω𝑛
derivative
term 𝑛 𝑛

-40 log ω𝑛 for ω < ω𝑛

0 for ω < ω𝑛
1 -20 log (2𝛿ω ) for ω =
-90 for ω = ω𝑛
2

𝜔2 + 2𝑗𝛿𝜔
𝑛
Second
order
𝜔2 (1 − ω𝑛
𝜔 2
-180 for ω > ω𝑛
𝜔𝑛 )
𝑛
-40
-40 log ω for ω > ω𝑛
integral
term 𝑛

Consider the open loop transfer function 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐾.

Magnitude 𝑀 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐾 dB Phase angle ∅ = 0

degrees

If 𝐾 = 1, then magnitude is 0 dB.

If 𝐾 > 1, then magnitude will be positive. If 𝐾 < 1, then

magnitude will be negative.

The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.

The magnitude plot is a horizontal line, which is independent of frequency. The 0 dB line
itself is the magnitude plot when the value of K is one. For the positive values of K, the
87
 Control Systems

20
horizontal line

𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐾 dB above
will shift

the 0 dB line.
For the negative
values of K, the

20
horizontal line

𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐾 dB below
will shift

the 0 dB line.
The Zero
degrees line
itself is the
phase plot for
all the positive
values of K.

Consider the

open loop

transfer function

𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑠.

Magnitude 𝑀 =

20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ω dB

Phase angle ∅ =
900

At ω = 0.1

rad/sec, the

magnitude is -

20 dB. At ω = 1

rad/sec, the

started atisω0=
magnitude
0.1 rad/sec having a magnitude of -20 dB and it continues on the same slope. It is
The magnitude plot is a line, which is having a slope of 20 dB/dec. This line

touching 0 dB line at ω = 1 rad/sec. In this case, the phase plot is 900 line.
dB.

At ω = 10
Consider the open loop transfer function 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 1 + 𝑠𝜏. Magnitude 𝑀 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔√1 +
[

rad/sec, the
magnitude is 20
ω2𝜏2 dB
dB.

Phase angle ∅ = tan−1 𝜔𝜏 degrees The following

figure shows the
For ω < �1 , the magnitude is 0 dB and phase angle is 0 degrees. corresponding
Bode plot.
For ω > �1 , the magnitude is 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜔𝜏 dB and phase angle is
�

900. �

88
 Control Systems

The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.

The magnitude plot is having magnitude of 0 dB upto ω = 𝜏1 rad/sec. From ω = 1 rad/sec, it

is having a slope of 20 dB/dec. In this case, the phase plot𝜏is having phase angle of 0
degrees up to ω = 𝜏1 rad/sec and from here, it is having phase angle of 900. This Bode plot
is called the asymptotic Bode plot.

As the magnitude and the phase plots are represented with straight
lines, the Exact Bode plots resemble the asymptotic Bode plots. The
only difference is that the Exact Bode plots will have simple curves
instead of straight lines.

Similarly, you can draw the Bode plots for other terms of the open loop
transfer function which are given in the table.

89
 22. Construction of Control Systems

Bode Plots

In this chapter, let us understand in detail how to construct (draw) Bode plots.

Rules for Construction of Bode

Plots
Follow these rules while constructing a Bode plot.
Represent the open loop transfer function in the standard time constant form.

Substitute, 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 in the above equation.

Find the corner frequencies and arrange them in ascending order.

1 th
10
 Consider the starting frequency of the Bode plot as of the minimum corner
frequency or 0.1 rad/sec
whichever is smaller value
and draw the Bode plot
 upto plots properly.
Draw the magnitude plots for each term and combine these
10 times maximum corner
 frequency.
Draw the phase plots for each term and combine these plots properly.

Note: The corner frequency is the frequency at which there is a change in the slope
of the magnitude plot.

Example
Consider the open loop transfer function of a closed loop control system
10𝑠
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) (𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 +
= 5)
Let us convert this open loop transfer function into standard time constant form.
10𝑠
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) 𝑠
= 2 (2𝑠 + 1) 5 (5 +
1) �
=> 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) 𝑠�
= (1 + 2
𝑠) (1 +

5)
So, we can draw the Bode plot in semi log sheet using the rules mentioned earlier.

StabilityAnalysis using Bode

Plots
From the Bode plots, we can say whether the control system is stable, marginally stable
or unstable based on the values of these parameters.
Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency

Gain margin and phase margin

90
 Control Systems

Phase Cross over Frequency

cross over frequency. It is denoted by 𝝎𝒑𝒄. The unit of phase cross over frequency is
The frequency at which the phase plot is having the phase of -1800 is known as phase

rad/sec.

Gain Cross over Frequency

as gain cross over frequency. It is denoted by 𝝎𝒈𝒄. The unit of gain cross over
The frequency at which the magnitude plot is having the magnitude of zero dB is known

frequency is rad/sec.

The stability of the control system based on the relation between the phase cross over
frequency and the gain cross over frequency is listed below.
If the phase cross over frequency 𝜔𝑝𝑐 is greater than the gain cross over frequency
𝜔𝑔𝑐 , then the control system is stable.

If the phase cross over frequency 𝜔𝑝𝑐 is equal to the gain cross over frequency 𝜔𝑔𝑐 , then
the control system is marginally stable.

If the phase cross over frequency 𝜔𝑝𝑐 is less than the gain cross over frequency
𝜔𝑔𝑐 , then the control system is unstable.

Gain Margin
Gain margin 𝑮𝑴 is equal to negative of the magnitude in dB at phase cross over

𝐺𝑀 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) = −20
frequency.

log 𝑀𝑝𝑐 1 𝑝
𝑀𝑐
Where, 𝑀𝑝𝑐 is the magnitude at phase cross over frequency. The unit of gain margin (GM)
is dB.

Phase Margin
The formula for phase margin 𝑷𝑴 is

𝑃𝑀 = 1800 + ∅𝑔𝑐

Where, ∅𝑔𝑐 is the phase angle at gain cross over frequency. The unit of phase margin is
degrees.

The stability of the control system based on the relation between gain margin and phase
margin is listed below.
If both the gain margin 𝐺𝑀 and the phase margin 𝑃𝑀 are positive, then the control
system is stable.

If both the gain margin 𝐺𝑀 and the phase margin 𝑃𝑀 are equal to zero, then the
control system is marginally stable.

If the gain margin 𝐺𝑀 and / or the phase margin 𝑃𝑀 are/is negative, then the control
system is unstable.

91
 23. Control Systems − Control Systems

Polar Plots

In the previous chapters, we discussed the Bode plots. There, we have two separate plots
for both magnitude and phase as the function of frequency. Let us now discuss about
polar plots. Polar plot is a plot which can be drawn between magnitude and phase. Here,
the magnitudes are represented by normal values only.

The polar form of 𝐺(𝑗𝜔)𝐻(𝑗𝜔) is

𝐺(𝑗𝜔)𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| ∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔)𝐻(𝑗𝜔)

angle of 𝐺(𝑗𝜔)𝐻(𝑗𝜔) by varying 𝜔 from zero to ∞. The polar graph sheet is shown in the
The Polar plot is a plot, which can be drawn between the magnitude and the phase

following figure.

This graph sheet consists of concentric circles and radial lines. The concentric circles
and the radial lines represent the magnitudes and phase angles respectively. These

represent angles with negative values in clockwise direction. For example, the angle 2700
angles are represented by positive values in anti-clock wise direction. Similarly, we can

in anti-clock wise direction is equal to the angle −900 in clockwise direction.

92
 Control Systems

Rules for Drawing Polar

Plots
Follow these rules for plotting the polar plots.
Substitute, 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 in the open loop transfer function.

Write the expressions for magnitude and the phase of 𝐺(𝑗𝜔)𝐻(𝑗𝜔).

Find the starting magnitude and the phase of 𝐺(𝑗𝜔)𝐻(𝑗𝜔) by substituting 𝜔 = 0. So,
the polar plot starts with this magnitude and the phase angle.

Find the ending magnitude and the phase of 𝐺(𝑗𝜔)𝐻(𝑗𝜔) by substituting 𝜔 = ∞. So, the
polar plot ends with this magnitude and the phase angle.

of 𝐺(𝑗𝜔)𝐻(𝑗𝜔) equal to zero and find the value(s) of 𝜔.

Check whether the polar plot intersects the real axis, by making the imaginary term

𝐺(𝑗𝜔)𝐻(𝑗𝜔) equal to zero and find the value(s) of 𝜔.

Check whether the polar plot intersects the imaginary axis, by making real term of

For drawing polar plot more clearly, find the magnitude and phase of 𝐺(𝑗𝜔)𝐻(𝑗𝜔) by
considering the other value(s) of 𝜔.

Example
Consider the open loop transfer function of a closed loop control system.
5
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 +
= 2)
Let us draw the polar plot for this control system using the above rules.

Step 1: Substitute, 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 in the open loop transfer function.

5
𝐺(𝑗𝜔)𝐻(𝑗𝜔) =
𝑗𝜔(𝑗𝜔 + 1)(𝑗𝜔 + 2)

5
The magnitude of the open loop transfer function is
𝑀=
𝜔(√𝜔 + 1)(√𝜔2 +
2

4)

The phase angle of𝜔

∅ = −90
the0 − tan−1 𝜔 − tan−1
transfer function is 2
open loop

Step 2: The following table

shows the magnitude and the

function at 𝜔 = 0
phase angle of the open loop
Frequency
rad/sec and 𝜔 = ∞ rad/sec.
Magnitude transfer
Phase angle (degrees)
(rad/sec)

0 ∞ -90 or 270

∞ 0 -270 or 90

93
Control Systems

So, the polar

plot starts at (∞,
−900) and ends
at (0, −2700).
The first and the
second terms
within the
brackets
indicate the
magnitude and
phase angle
respectively.

Step 3: Based
on the starting
and the ending
polar co-
ordinates, this
polar plot will
intersect the
negative real
axis. The phase
angle
corresponding
to the negative

−180 or 1800.
real axis is
0

So, by equating
the phase angle
of the open loop
transfer function
to either −1800 or
1800, we will get

the 𝜔 value as √2.

By substituting 𝜔

= √2 in the

magnitude of the

open loop transfer

function, we will

get 𝑀 =

0.83. Therefore,

the polar plot

intersects the

negative real axis

when 𝜔 = √2 and
94
the polar
coordinate is
(0.83, −1800).
 24. Control Systems − Control Systems

Nyquist Plots

control systems by varying 𝜔 from −∞ to ∞. That means, Nyquist plots are used to draw
Nyquist plots are the continuation of polar plots for finding the stability of the closed loop

the complete frequency response of the open loop transfer function.

Nyquist Stability
Criterion
are 𝑃 poles and 𝑍 zeros are enclosed by the ‘s’ plane closed path, then the
The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument. It states that if there

𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) plane must encircle the origin 𝑃 − 𝑍 times. So, we can write the number of
corresponding

encirclements 𝑁 as,

𝑁 =𝑃−𝑍
If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only poles, then the direction of the
encirclement in the 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) plane will be opposite to the direction of the enclosed
closed path in the ‘s’ plane.

If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only zeros, then the direction of the
encirclement in the 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) plane will be in the same direction as that of the enclosed
closed path in the ‘s’ plane.

Let us now apply the principle of argument to the entire right half of the ‘s’ plane by
selecting it as a closed path. This selected path is called the Nyquist contour.

We know that the closed loop control system is stable if all the poles of the closed loop
transfer function are in the left half of the ‘s’ plane. So, the poles of the closed loop
transfer function are nothing but the roots of the characteristic equation. As the order of
the characteristic equation increases, it is difficult to find the roots. So, let us correlate
these roots of the characteristic equation as follows.
The Poles of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the open loop
transfer function.

The zeros of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the closed loop
transfer function.

We know that the open loop control system is stable if there is no open loop pole in the
the right half of the ‘s’ plane.

i.e.,𝑃 = 0=>𝑁 = −𝑍

We know that the closed loop control system is stable if there is no closed loop pole in the
right half of the ‘s’ plane.

i.e.,𝑍 = 0=>𝑁 = 𝑃

Nyquist stability criterion states the number of encirclements about the critical point
(- 1+j0) must be equal to the poles of characteristic equation, which is nothing but the
poles of the open loop transfer function in the right half of the ‘s’ plane. The shift in origin
to (- 1+j0) gives the characteristic equation plane.
95
 Control Systems

Rules for Drawing Nyquist

Plots
Follow these rules for plotting the Nyquist plots.
Locate the poles and zeros of open loop transfer function 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) in ‘s’ plane.

Draw the polar plot by varying 𝜔 from zero to infinity. If pole or zero present at s=0,
then varying 𝜔 from 0+ to infinity for drawing polar plot.

Draw the mirror image of above polar plot for values of 𝜔 ranging from −∞ to zero (0− if
any pole or zero present at s=0).

The number of infinite radius half circles will be equal to the number of poles or zeros at
origin. The infinite radius half circle will start at the point where the mirror image of the
polar plot ends. And this infinite radius half circle will end at the point where the polar
plot starts.

After drawing the Nyquist plot, we can find the stability of the closed loop control system
using the Nyquist stability criterion. If the critical point (-1+j0) lies outside the
encirclement, then the closed loop control system is absolutely stable.

StabilityAnalysis using Nyquist

Plots
From the Nyquist plots, we can identify whether the control system is stable, marginally
stable or unstable based on the values of these parameters.
Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency

Gain margin and phase margin

Phase Cross over Frequency

1800) is known as the phase cross over frequency. It is denoted by 𝝎𝒑𝒄.

The frequency at which the Nyquist plot intersects the negative real axis (phase angle is -

Gain Cross over Frequency

gain cross over frequency. It is denoted by 𝝎𝒈𝒄.

The frequency at which the Nyquist plot is having the magnitude of one is known as the

The stability of the control system based on the relation between phase cross over
frequency and gain cross over frequency is listed below.
If the phase cross over frequency 𝜔𝑝𝑐 is greater than the gain cross over frequency
𝜔𝑔𝑐 , then the control system is stable.

If the phase cross over frequency 𝜔𝑝𝑐 is equal to the gain cross over frequency 𝜔𝑔𝑐 , then
the control system is marginally stable.

If phase cross over frequency 𝜔𝑝𝑐 is less than gain cross over frequency 𝜔𝑔𝑐 , then the
control system is unstable.

96
 Control Systems

Gain Margin
The gain margin 𝑮𝑴 is equal to the reciprocal of the magnitude of the Nyquist plot at
the phase cross over frequency.
1
𝐺𝑀
= 𝑀𝑝𝑐

Where, 𝑀𝑝𝑐 is the magnitude in normal

scale at the phase cross over frequency.

Phase Margin
The phase margin 𝑷𝑴 is equal to the sum
of 1800 and the phase angle at the gain
cross over frequency.

𝑃𝑀 = 1800 + ∅𝑔𝑐

Where, ∅𝑔𝑐 is the phase angle at the gain

cross over frequency.

The stability of the control system based on

the relation between the gain margin and
the phase margin is listed below.
If the gain margin 𝐺𝑀 is greater than one
and the phase margin 𝑃𝑀 is positive, then
the control system is stable.

If the gain margin 𝐺𝑀 is equal to one and

the phase margin 𝑃𝑀 is zero degrees,
then the control system is marginally
stable.

If the gain margin 𝐺𝑀 is less than one and

/ or the phase margin 𝑃𝑀 is negative,
then the control system is unstable.

97
 25. Control Systems − Control Systems

Compensators

There are three types of compensators — lag, lead and lag-lead compensators. These are
most commonly used.

Lag
Compensator
The Lag Compensator is an electrical network which produces a sinusoidal output having
the phase lag when a sinusoidal input is applied. The lag compensator circuit in the ‘s’
domain is shown in the following figure.

Here, the capacitor is in series with the resistor 𝑅2 and the output is measured across this
combination.

The transfer function of this lag compensator is -

𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑠+
1 = ( 𝜏
𝑉𝑖(𝑠) 1 1 )
𝛼 𝑠 +𝛼
𝜏
Where,

𝜏=
𝑅2𝐶
𝑅1
𝛼
+ 𝑅2
=
From the above equation, 𝛼 is always greater than one.
2

From the transfer function, we can conclude that the lag compensator has one pole at 𝑠 =
− 𝛼𝜏
1
and one zero at 𝑠 = − 1. This means, the pole will be nearer to origin in the pole-zero
𝜏
configuration of the lag compensator.

Substitute, 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 in the transfer

function.
𝑉𝑜 (𝑗𝜔)
1 = ( 𝑗𝜔 +𝜏 )
𝑉𝑖(𝑗𝜔) 1
𝛼 𝑗𝜔 +𝛼1
𝜏
Phase angle ∅ = tan−1 𝜔𝜏 − tan−1
𝛼𝜔𝜏

98
 Control Systems

We know that,
the phase of the
output
sinusoidal signal
is equal to the
sum of the
phase angles of
Lead input sinusoidal
Compensator signal
The lead compensator is an electrical network which produces a sinusoidal and
output the
having
transfer
phase lead when a sinusoidal input is applied. The lead compensator circuit in the ‘s’
domain is shown in the following figure. function.

So, in order to
produce the
phase lag at the
output of this
compensator,
the phase angle
of the transfer
function should
be negative.

when 𝛼 > 1.
This will happen

Here, the capacitor is parallel to the resistor 𝑅1 and the output is measured across

𝑅2.
resistor

𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑠𝜏 +
=𝛽( )
The transfer function of this lead compensator is -
1
𝑉𝑖(𝑠) 𝛽𝑠𝜏 +
1
Where,

𝜏=
𝑅1𝐶
𝑅
𝛽
𝑅12
=
+ 𝑅2
From the transfer function, we can conclude that the lead compensator has pole at 𝑠 = −
1 �

and zero at 𝑠 = −𝛽 .
1
�

𝜏
Substitute, 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 in the transfer
𝑉𝑜 𝑗𝜔𝜏 +
function.
= 𝛽 (1 )
(𝑗𝜔)
𝑉𝑖(𝑗𝜔) 𝛽𝑗𝜔𝜏 +
1
Phase angle ∅ = tan−1 𝜔𝜏 − tan−1 𝛽𝜔𝜏

We know that, the phase of the output sinusoidal signal is equal to the sum of the phase
angles of input sinusoidal signal and the transfer function.

of the transfer function should be positive. This will happen when 0 < 𝛽 < 1. Therefore,
So, in order to produce the phase lead at the output of this compensator, the phase angle

zero will be nearer to origin in pole-zero configuration of the lead compensator.

99
 Control Systems

Lag-Lead
Compensator
Lag-Lead compensator is an electrical network which produces phase lag at one
frequency region and phase lead at other frequency region. It is a combination of both
the lag and the lead compensators. The lag-lead compensator circuit in the ‘s’ domain is
shown in the following figure.

This circuit looks like both the compensators are cascaded. So, the transfer function of

1
this circuit will be the product of transfer functions of the lead and the lag compensators.
𝑠+
𝑉 (𝑠) 𝑠𝜏 + 1 𝜏2
)
=𝛽( )(
1
1
𝑜
𝑉𝑖(𝑠 𝛽𝑠𝜏1 + 1
) 1𝛼 𝑠 + 𝛼𝜏

We know 𝛼𝛽 =
2

1.
𝑉 𝑠+
1 𝑠+
1
𝜏1 𝜏2
=> (𝑠)
𝑉𝑖(𝑠 = ( )( )
1 1
𝑜

) 𝑠 + 𝛽𝜏 1 𝑠 +
𝛼𝜏2
Where,

𝜏1 =
𝑅1𝐶1

𝜏2 =
𝑅2𝐶2

100
 26. Control Systems − Control Systems

Controllers

The various types of controllers are used to improve the performance of control systems.
In this chapter, we will discuss the basic controllers such as the proportional, the
derivative and the integral controllers.

Proportional
Controller
The proportional controller produces an output, which is proportional to error signal.

𝑢(𝑡) ∝ 𝑒(𝑡)

=> 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑃 𝑒(𝑡)

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides -

𝑈(𝑠) = 𝐾𝑃 𝐸(𝑠)

𝑈(𝑠)
= 𝐾𝑃
𝐸(𝑠)

Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional controller is 𝐾𝑃 . Where,

𝑈(𝑠) is the Laplace transform of the actuating signal 𝑢(𝑡)

𝐸(𝑠) is the Laplace transform of the error signal e(𝑡)

𝐾𝑃 is the proportionality constant

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with
the proportional controller is shown in the following figure.

The proportional controller is used to change the transient response as per the
requirement.

101
 Control Systems

Derivative
Controller
The derivative controller produces an output, which is derivative of the error signal.
𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑑
𝐾𝐷 𝑡
Apply Laplace transform on both sides.

𝑈(𝑠) = 𝐾𝐷 𝑠𝐸(𝑠)

𝑈(𝑠)
= 𝐾𝐷 𝑠
𝐸(𝑠)

Therefore, the transfer function of the derivative controller is 𝐾𝐷 𝑠. Where, 𝐾𝐷 is the

derivative constant.
The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with
the derivative controller is shown in the following figure.

The derivative controller is used to make the unstable control system into a stable one.

Integral
Controller
The integral controller produces an output, which is integral of the error signal.

𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝐼 ∫ 𝑒(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡

𝐾𝐼
Apply Laplace transform on both the sides -
𝐸(𝑠)
𝑈(𝑠�)
= �
𝑈(𝑠) =
𝐸(𝑠)
𝐾
𝑠
𝐼

Therefore, the transfer function of the integral controller is 𝐾𝑠𝐼.

Where, 𝐾𝐼 is the integral constant.

102
 Control Systems

The block
diagram of the
unity negative
feedback closed
loop control
system along
with the
integral
controller is
shown in the
following figure.

The integral controller is used to decrease the steady state error.

Let us now discuss about the combination of basic controllers.

Proportional Derivative (PD)

Controller
The proportional derivative controller produces an output, which is the combination of the
outputs of proportional and derivative controllers.
𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑃 𝑒(𝑡) 𝑑
+ 𝐾𝐷 𝑡
Apply Laplace transform on both sides -

𝑈(𝑠) = (𝐾𝑃 + 𝐾𝐷 𝑠) 𝐸(𝑠)

𝑈(𝑠)
= 𝐾𝑃 + 𝐾𝐷 𝑠
𝐸(𝑠)

Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional derivative controller is 𝐾𝑃 + 𝐾𝐷 𝑠.

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with
the proportional derivative controller is shown in the following figure.

The proportional derivative controller is used to improve the stability of control system
without affecting the steady state error.

103
 Control Systems

Proportional Integral (PI)

Controller
The proportional integral controller produces an output, which is the combination of
outputs of the proportional and integral controllers.

𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑃 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾𝐼 ∫ 𝑒(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡

��
Apply Laplace transform on both sides -

𝑈(𝑠) = (𝐾
� +��)
𝐸(𝑠)
�
�

𝑈(𝑠)
�

𝐾𝐼
= 𝐾𝑃 +
𝐸(𝑠) integral controller is 𝐾� +� 𝐼 .
𝑠
𝑠
Therefore, the transfer function of proportional
� �
The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with
the proportional integral controller is shown in the following figure.

The proportional integral controller is used to decrease the steady state error without
affecting the stability of the control system.

Proportional Integral Derivative (PID)

Controller
The proportional integral derivative controller produces an output, which is the
combination of the outputs of proportional, integral and derivative controllers.
𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑃 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾𝐼 ∫ 𝑒(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑
+ 𝐾𝐷 𝑡
Apply Laplace transform on both sides -
��
𝑈(𝑠) = (𝐾𝑃 +
��+ 𝐾 𝑠)
𝐷
𝐸(𝑠)
�
𝑈(𝑠) �𝐾
= 𝐾𝑃 + 𝐼+ 𝐾𝐷
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑠
𝑠
Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional integral derivative controller is 𝐾𝑃 +
+ 𝐾� 𝑠.
𝐾𝐼
�
� �

104
 Control Systems

The block
diagram of the
unity negative
feedback closed
loop control
system along
with the
proportional
integral
derivative
controller is
shown in the
following figure.
The proportional integral derivative controller is used to improve the stability of the
control system and to decrease steady state error.

105
 27. Control Systems − State Control Systems

Space Model

The state space model of Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system can be represented as,

𝑋̇ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈

𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋 + 𝐷𝑈

The first and the second equations are known as state equation and output equation
respectively.

Where,

X and 𝑋̇ are the state vector and the differential state vector respectively.

U and Y are input vector and output vector respectively.

A is the system matrix.
B and C are the input and the output matrices.
D is the feed-forward matrix.

Basic Concepts of State Space

Model
The following basic terminology involved in this chapter.

State
It is a group of variables, which summarizes the history of the system in order to predict
the future values (outputs).

State Variable
The number of the state variables required is equal to the number of the storage
elements present in the system.

Examples: current flowing through inductor, voltage across capacitor

State Vector
It is a vector, which contains the state variables as elements.

In the earlier chapters, we have discussed two mathematical models of the control
systems. Those are the differential equation model and the transfer function model. The
state space model can be obtained from any one of these two mathematical models. Let
us now discuss these two methods one by one.

106
 Control Systems

State Space Model from Differential

Consider the following series of the RLC circuit. It is having an input voltage, 𝑣 (𝑡) and the
Equation 𝑖

current flowing through the circuit is 𝑖(𝑡).

There are two storage elements (inductor and capacitor) in this circuit. So, the number of

through the inductor, 𝑖(𝑡) and the voltage across capacitor, 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡).
the state variables is equal to two and these state variables are the current flowing

From the circuit, the output voltage, 𝑣0(𝑡) is equal to the voltage across capacitor, 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡).

𝑣0(𝑡) = 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡)

Apply KVL around the loop.

𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
) + 𝐿𝑑 + 𝑣𝑐

(𝑡𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
) 𝑡
=> = − 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡)+ 𝑣𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑑𝑡
(𝑡)− 𝐿
𝐿 (𝑡𝐿
)
The voltage across the capacitor is -

𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) = 1
∫ 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝐶

Differentiate the above equation with respect to time.

𝑑𝑣𝑐
= 𝑖(𝑡)
(𝑡)𝑑 𝐶
𝑡
State vector, 𝑋 =
𝑣𝑐
𝑖(𝑡)
[ ]
(𝑡) 𝑑𝑖(𝑡)

Differential state vector, 𝑋̇ = [ 𝑑𝑡

]
𝑑𝑣𝑐(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
We can arrange the differential equations and output equation into the standard form of
state space model as,
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 1
− − 1
𝑅 𝐿 � 𝑖(𝑡
𝑋̇ = [𝑑𝑣
𝑐 (𝑡)] = ] [ )𝑐 ] + [� ] [𝑣𝑖
𝑣 (𝑡) �
�
�
𝑑 0(𝑡)]
[1
𝑑𝑡 𝑡 𝑖(𝑡) 0
1] [
�
𝑌= 𝑣𝑐
]
[0 (𝑡)

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 Control Systems

Where,
1
−� − 1
�
𝐴= 𝐿] , 𝐵 = [ ] , 𝐶 = [0 1] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 =
1� 𝐿
[
�� 0 0
[0]
�

State Space Model from Transfer

Function
Consider the two types of transfer functions based on the type of terms present in the
numerator.
Transfer function having constant term in Numerator

Transfer function having polynomial function of ‘s’ in Numerator.

Transfer function having constant term in Numerator

Consider the following transfer function of a system
𝑌(𝑠) 𝑏
=
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑛−1𝑠𝑛−10+ ⋯ + 𝑎 𝑠
1
0 + 𝑎
𝑠𝑛 + 𝑎
Rearrange, the above equation as

(𝑠𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑠𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0)𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑏0𝑈(𝑠)

𝑑𝑛𝑦(𝑡)
Apply inverse Laplace transform on both sides.

+⋯ 𝑑𝑦(𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑡 𝑦(𝑡)
𝑛−1𝑛
+ 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑑 + 𝑎0𝑦(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡𝑛− + 𝑎1 )𝑡
Let
1 𝑏 𝑢(𝑡)
0

𝑦(𝑡) =
𝑥1
= 𝑥2 =
𝑑
𝑥
𝑡 𝑑𝑦(𝑡1 )
𝑑2𝑦(𝑡
) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥3 =
2
𝑥2
.

𝑑𝑛−1𝑦(𝑡
) 𝑛− = 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛−̇
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑛𝑦(𝑡
1
1

) 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑛
𝑥𝑛
and 𝑢(𝑡)
=𝑢

Then,

𝑥𝑛̇ + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑥𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑥2 + 𝑎0𝑥1

= 𝑏 0𝑢
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 Control Systems

From the above equation, we can write the following state equation.

𝑥𝑛̇ = −𝑎0𝑥1 − 𝑎1𝑥2 − ⋯ − 𝑎𝑛−1𝑥𝑛 + 𝑏0𝑢

The output equation is -

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑦 = 𝑥1

𝑥1̇ 0 1 0 𝑥1 0
The state space model is -
0 … 𝑥2 0
𝑥̇ 0 1 … 0 0
0 ⋮
⋮ = ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ … ⋮ ⋮ + ⋮
𝑋̇ = 2 0
𝑥𝑛−̇ 1
0 … 1 𝑥𝑛−1 [𝑢]0
[ 𝑥𝑛0̇ ] 0
[−𝑎
− 𝑎2 …0 −𝑎𝑛−1] [ 𝑥𝑛 ] [𝑏0
−𝑎1 −𝑎𝑛−2 ]
0 𝑥1

𝑥2
𝑌 = [1 0 … 0 0] ⋮

𝑥𝑛−
1
[ 𝑥𝑛
Here, D = [0].
]
Example
Find the state space model for the system having transfer function.
𝑌(𝑠) 1
=
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 +𝑠+1
2

Rearrange, the above equation as,

(𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 1)𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑈(𝑠)

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝑑2𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡2 + + 𝑦(𝑡) =

𝑑𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
Let

𝑦(𝑡) =
𝑥1
= 𝑥2 =
𝑑
𝑥
𝑡 𝑑𝑦(𝑡1 )
and 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑢
[

Then, the state equation is

𝑥2̇ = −𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑢

The output equation is

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑦 = 𝑥1

1 𝑥 0
] [𝑥 ]
The state space model is
𝑋̇ = [𝑥 ̇
2 ] =−1 −1 1 2 +[]
𝑥 ̇ 1 [𝑢]
[ 1 0
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 Control Systems

𝑥1
𝑌 = [1
𝑥
0]2 [ ]
Transfer function having polynomial function of ‘s’ in Numerator
Consider the following transfer function of a system

𝑌(𝑠) 𝑏𝑛𝑠𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛−1𝑠𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1𝑠 + 𝑏0

=
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑛−1 𝑠𝑛 + 𝑎 1
𝑠𝑛−1 + ⋯ +
𝑌(𝑠) 1
0
𝑎𝑠+𝑎
=> =(
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠𝑛 + ) (𝑏𝑛𝑠𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛−1𝑠𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1𝑠
𝑎𝑛−1𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑠 + 𝑎0
+ 𝑏 0)
𝑛−1

The above equation is in the form of product of transfer functions of two blocks, which are
cascaded.
𝑌(𝑠) 𝑉(𝑠)
𝑌(𝑠)= ( 𝑈(𝑠)) (
𝑈(𝑠)
)
𝑉(𝑠)
Here,
𝑉(𝑠 1
=
) 𝑈(𝑠) 𝑛−1𝑠𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎 𝑠
1
0 + 𝑎
𝑠𝑛 + 𝑎
Rearrange, the above equation as

(𝑠𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑠𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0)𝑉(𝑠) = 𝑈(𝑠)

𝑑𝑛𝑣(𝑡)
Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

+⋯ 𝑑𝑣(𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑡
𝑛−1𝑣(𝑡)
+ 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑑 + 𝑎0𝑣(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡 𝑛−1 + 𝑎1 )𝑡
𝑢(𝑡)
𝑛
Let

𝑣(𝑡) =
𝑥1
= 𝑥2 =
𝑑
𝑥
𝑡 𝑑𝑣(𝑡1)
𝑑2𝑣(𝑡
) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥3 =
2
𝑥2
.

𝑑𝑛−1𝑣(𝑡)
= 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛−̇
𝑑𝑡𝑛−
𝑑𝑛𝑣(𝑡
1
1

) 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑛
𝑥𝑛
and 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑢

Then, the state equation is

𝑥𝑛̇ = −𝑎0𝑥1 − 𝑎1𝑥2 − ⋯ − 𝑎𝑛−1𝑥𝑛 + 𝑢

Consider,

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 Control Systems

𝑌(𝑠
) = 𝑏
𝑛 𝑠 +𝑛−1
𝑛
𝑏 𝑠𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏
1 𝑠 +
𝑏 0
𝑉(𝑠
) as
Rearrange, the above equation

𝑌(𝑠) = (𝑏𝑛𝑠𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛−1𝑠𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1𝑠 + 𝑏0)𝑉(𝑠)

𝑑𝑛𝑣(𝑡)
Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑑𝑑𝑡 𝑣(𝑡) + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑑𝑣 (𝑡 +

𝑛−1𝑛
+ 1
𝑑𝑡 𝑛−
𝑏𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑏 1 𝑏0𝑣(𝑡) )
𝑛−1 y(t)=y in the above equation, will get the output
By substituting the state variables and
equation as,

𝑦 = 𝑏𝑛𝑥𝑛̇ + 𝑏𝑛−1𝑥𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑏1𝑥2 + 𝑏0𝑥1

̇ value in the above equation.

𝑥𝑛
Substitute,

𝑦 = 𝑏𝑛(−𝑎0𝑥1 − 𝑎1𝑥2 − ⋯ − 𝑎𝑛−1𝑥𝑛 + 𝑢) + 𝑏𝑛−1𝑥𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑏1𝑥2 +

𝑏 0𝑥1

𝑦 = (𝑏0is− 𝑏𝑛𝑎0)𝑥1 + (𝑏1 − 𝑏𝑛𝑎1)𝑥2 + ⋯ + (𝑏𝑛−1 −

The state space model 𝑏𝑛𝑎𝑛−1)𝑥𝑛 +
𝑥1̇ 0 1 0𝑏𝑛𝑢… 0 𝑥1 0
0 0 0 𝑥 0
𝑥 2̇
⋮ 0 ⋮ ⋮
𝑋=⋮
̇ =
2
+ ⋮ [𝑢]
1
𝑥𝑛−̇ 1 0 1 𝑥𝑛−1 0
[ 𝑥𝑛̇ ] [−𝑎
− 𝑎2 … −𝑎𝑛−1] [ 𝑥𝑛 ] [1]
…
0
𝑥1
0 𝑥2
⋮
𝑌 = [𝑏0 − 𝑏𝑛𝑎0 𝑏1 − 𝑏𝑛𝑎1 … 𝑏𝑛−2 − 𝑏⋮𝑛𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏𝑛−1 −
𝑥𝑛−1
𝑏𝑛𝑎𝑛−1] [ 𝑥𝑛 ]
⋮ …
If 𝑏𝑛 = 0, then,
⋮
0 𝑥1

0 𝑥2
𝑌 = [𝑏0 𝑏1 … 𝑏𝑛−2 ⋮
…
𝑏𝑛−1]
𝑥𝑛−
0 1
−𝑎1 [ 𝑥𝑛
]
−𝑎𝑛−2

111
 28. Control Systems − State Control Systems

Space Analysis

In the previous chapter, we learnt how to obtain the state space model from differential
equation and transfer function. In this chapter, let us discuss how to obtain transfer
function from the state space model.

Transfer Function from State Space

Model
We know the state space model of a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system is -

𝑋̇ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈

𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋 + 𝐷𝑈

Apply Laplace Transform on both sides of the state equation.

𝑠𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑠) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑠)

=> (𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐵𝑈(𝑠)

=> 𝑋(𝑠) = (𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1𝐵𝑈(𝑠)

Apply Laplace Transform on both sides of the output equation.

𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐶𝑋(𝑠) + 𝐷𝑈(𝑠)

Substitute, X(s) value in the above equation.

=> 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐶(𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1𝐵𝑈(𝑠) + 𝐷𝑈(𝑠)

𝑌(𝑠)
=>
=> 𝑌(𝑠) = [𝐶(𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1𝐵 + 𝐷= 𝐶(𝑠𝐼
] 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑈(𝑠
− 𝐴)−1𝐵 + 𝐷
)
The above equation represents the transfer function of the system. So, we can calculate
the transfer function of the system by using this formula for the system represented in
the state space model.

Note: When D = [0], the transfer function will be

𝑌(𝑠)
= 𝐶(𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1𝐵
𝑈(𝑠
)
Example
Let us calculate the transfer function of the system represented in the state space model
as,
1[]
̇ ̇
−1 −1
𝑥1 𝑥1 𝑥1
𝑌 = [0
𝑥
1]2 [ ]

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 Control Systems

−1 −1 1
Here,
𝐴=
0
The formula for the transfer function when D= [0] is -
𝑌(𝑠)
= 𝐶(𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1𝐵
𝑈(𝑠
)
Substitute, A, B & C matrices in the above equation.
𝑌(𝑠) 𝑠+
= [0 1 −1 1
𝑈(𝑠) 1] [1−1 ]
𝑠

𝑌(𝑠 [
𝑠 [−1 ]
0 ]
=> ) 1 𝑠 + 1 [1]
𝑈(𝑠 = [0 1] (𝑠 + 1)𝑠 − 1(−1)
)
𝑌(𝑠 [0 1 0 1
]
=> ) 1
𝑈(𝑠)= 𝑠𝑠2 + 𝑠 + = 1 𝑠2 + 𝑠 +
[ ]
1
Therefore, the transfer function of the system for th egiven state space model is
𝑌(𝑠) 1
=
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 +𝑠+1
2

State Transition Matrix and its

Properties
is present even in the absence of input, it is called zero input response 𝑥𝑍𝐼𝑅 (𝑡) .
If the system is having initial conditions, then it will produce an output. Since, this output

Mathematically, we can write it as,

𝑥𝑍𝐼𝑅 (𝑡) = 𝑒𝐴𝑡 𝑋(0) = 𝐿−1{[𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴]−1𝑋(0)}

From the above relation, we can write the state transition matrix ∅(𝑡) as

∅(𝑡) = 𝑒𝐴𝑡 = 𝐿−1[𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴]−1

∅(𝑡)
So, the zero input response can be obtained by multiplying the state transition matrix

with the initial conditions matrix.

Following are the properties of the state transition matrix.

If 𝑡 = 0, then state transition matrix will be equal to an Identity matrix.
∅(0) = 𝐼

Inverse of state transition matrix will be same as that of state transition matrix just by
replcing ‘t’ by ‘-t’.
∅−1(𝑡) = ∅(−𝑡)

If 𝑡 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 , then the corresponding state transition matrix is equal to the multiplication
of the two state transition matrices at 𝑡 = 𝑡1 and 𝑡 = 𝑡2.
∅(𝑡1 + 𝑡2) = ∅(𝑡1) ∅(𝑡2)

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 Control Systems

Controllability and
Observability
Let us now discuss controllability and observability of control system one by one.

Controllability
A control system is said to be controllable if the initial states of the control system are
transferred (changed) to some other desired states by a controlled input in finite duration
of time.

We can check the controllability of a control system by using Kalman’s test.

Write the matrix 𝑄𝑐 in the following form.
𝑄𝑐 = 𝐴𝐵 𝐴2𝐵 𝐴𝑛−1𝐵
[𝐵 ⋯
 Find the determinant of matrix 𝑄𝑐 and if it is not ]equal to zero, then the control
system is controllable.

Observability
A control system is said to be observable if it is able to determine the initial states
of the control system by observing the outputs in finite duration of time.

We can check the observability of a control system by using Kalman’s test.

 Write the matrix 𝑄𝑜 in following form.
𝑄𝑜 = [𝐶𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝐶𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 )2𝐶𝑇

⋯ matrix 𝑄(𝐴and
) if𝐶it ]is not equal to zero, then the control
𝑇 𝑛−1 𝑇
 Find the determinant of 𝑜

system is observable.

Example
Let us verify the controllability and observability of a control system which is
represented in the state space model as,
1[]
̇ ̇
𝑥1 0
𝑥1 𝑥1 −1= −1
𝑌 [0 1] [ ]
𝑥
2
Here,
−1 −1 1
𝐴=[ ] , 𝐵 = [ ] , 𝐶 = [0
11], 𝐷 =
0 [0] and 𝑛 = 2.
0
For 𝑛 = 2, the matrix 𝑄𝑐 will be

𝑄𝑐 = [𝐵

𝐴𝐵]

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 Control Systems

We will get the product of matrices A and B as,

𝐴𝐵 =
1
[−1]
1
=> 𝑄𝑐 = ]
0
−1
[
1
=> |𝑄𝑐 | = 1 ≠ 0

Since the determinant of matrix 𝑄𝑐 is not equal to

zero, the given control system is controllable.

For 𝑛 = 2, the matrix 𝑄𝑜 will be -

𝑄𝑜 =
𝐴𝑇
[𝐶𝑇
Here, 𝐶𝑇 ]
−1 0
𝐴��= [ ] and 𝐶��= [ ]
−1
1 0
1
We will get the product of matrices 𝐴𝑇 and 𝐶𝑇 as
1
𝐴𝑇𝐶
𝑇
=[]
0
0
=> 𝑄𝑜 = [
1
]
0
=> |𝑄𝑜 | = −1 ≠ 0

Since, the determinant of matrix 𝑄𝑜 is not equal to

zero, the given control system is observable.

Therefore, the given control system is both

controllable and observable.

115