Theories of crime

causation
 THEORY
-comes from the Greek word theoria which means
“viewing”, “thinking” or “reflecting”.

-“formal statement of ideas that are suggested to

explain a fact or event, or how something works”.

-an integrated body of assumptions, propositions,

and definitions that explain and predict
relationships between two or more variables
 Theories of crime causation

 areabstract concepts that

systematically describe the causes or
genesis of crimes. These theories often
provide empirical insights to anyone
who ventures unto crime analysis
 Foundations of Crime Causation

Demonology Theory
 earliest
theory of crime causation that is
grounded on the belief that criminals were
possessed by evil spirit- a supernatural force
beyond one`s control which compel them to
commit crimes.
 Schools of Thought
1. Classical School- views crime as a product of free will,
hedonism, and rational choice. It anchors on the argument that
human beings are endowed with free will and rationality, and
that human actions are results of the rational calculation of the
costs and benefits (rewards).

 Free will- It refers to human`s freedom or capacity to act or decide in his

own.
 Hedonism- Often known as “pain-and-pleasure principle” It is a basic
assumption that people engage on things that will make them happy and
avoid things that gives them sufferings and pain.
 Rationality- means performing an act, or make a decision with sound
judgment, logic, reasonableness, and often conformity with established
societal norms.
 Utilitarianism- a philosophy developed by Jeremy Bentham. It means the
 Proponents of the Classical School

A. Cesare Beccaria- an Italian scholar, philosopher,

reformist who is widely recognized as the founder of
the classical school. He rose into fame after he
published his 17 pages essay entitled, “On Crimes and
Punishment” in 1764
B. Jeremy Bentham- founder of  Morally Best- an action in which
utilitarianism. He was credited in an individual pursues the greatest
the development of a Panopticon, happiness of all those affected even
a circular structure placed at the at the expense of his own
center of a circular glass roof. It happiness.
serves as a central tower where
prison staffs can overall supervise  Less Moral- an action in which he
surrounding cells. To Bentham, pursues others` happiness only
human conduct can fall in either when it promotes his own
one of the following categories: happiness as well.

 Minimally Moral- an action where

an individual pursues his own
happiness, taking care not to cause
pain to others, but not pursuing
their happiness either.
2. Neo-Classical School- from the word “neo” which
means new. It argued that since children and lunatics
are incapable of calculating pain and pleasure, they
should be treated differently.

3. Positivist or Italian School- views crime as a

product of the internal and external factors which are
beyond one`s control. It implores science in explaining
the causes of crime and proposed the idea of
individualized treatment of offenders. Criminal
offenders should be considered as part of and not apart
from the society.
 Proponents of the Positivist
School

A. Dr. Cesare Lombroso- an army physician in Italy who

is credited today as the “father of modern
criminology”. He studied prisoners` anatomical
dispositions and correlated it with criminal`s
propensity to commit crime and published a book
entitled “Criminal Man”.

 Criminal Man- The first book which describes the

causes of crime. It contains the argument that a
criminal can be identified through his or her biological
B. Enrico Ferri - a student of Cesare Lombroso. He argued that crime is
not only caused by anthropological or individual factors (e.g. intelligence,
age, sex, psychological makeup, etc.), rather by sociological factors (e.g.
family circumstances, religion, societal status, etc.), and even
environmental or geographical factors (e.g. weather condition, etc.)
- He coined the term “Criminal Sociology” which incorporated the
aforementioned factors of crime causation.

C. Raffaele Garofalo- an Italian jurist, a politician, and a notable

writer, was also a student of Cesare Lombroso.
- conceptualized the so called natural crime, those conducts that offend or
violated the two basic moral sentiments- pity and probity.
- argued that criminals are morally deficient and are therefore be eliminated
from the society either through death penalty or other forms of
incapacitation.
 BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME
CAUSATION
-These are theories that link crime with
human being`s physical or biological
dispositions. It clings on the idea that criminality
has something to do with person`s genetic
blueprint.
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

Theory of Atavism or Born Criminal

-originated from the work of Dr. Cesare Lombroso- the

father of modern criminology.
- grounded on the belief that criminals are identifiable
through their physical anomalies or stigmata.
Lombroso asserted that unlike law abiders, criminals
are having the appearance of pre-human forms- a
primitive stage of evolution.
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

Characteristics of an
Atavistic Person
•Twisted or Flat nose
•Long arms in relation to
their lower limbs
•Drooping eyes
•Large ears
•Protruding jaws
•Sloped foreheads
•Dark skin
•Small and deformed skulls
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
Lombroso`s Classification of
Criminals
1. Born Criminals- those with atavistic characteristics.

2. Insane Criminals- those having anatomical and

biological abnormalities. These include imbeciles, idiots,
as well as alcoholics, hysterics, and epileptics.

3. Criminals by passion- those who are triggered by

emotional force such as love, anger, hatred, jealousy,
and others.
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
Lombroso`s Classification of
Criminals
4. Occasional criminals- those who commit crimes given the opportunity.
This type of criminals has innate characteristics to commit crime.
Occasional criminals are composed into four subtypes:

• Criminaloid- those who are easily swayed or tempted to do evil.

Criminaloids are normal persons who commit crimes under the pressure
of circumstances.
• Epileptoid- those who are suffering from epilepsy, a neurological
disorder.
• Habitual criminal- those who live normally but later on develop an
undesirable habit (i.e. gambling, drugs) which influence him to commit
lifetime criminality.
• Pseudocriminal- like criminaloids, pseudocriminals are normal persons.
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

Physiognomy
-dubbed as “face reading”
-the study of the person`s personality traits or
character based on facial appearance.
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
Physiognomic Interpretations

•Men with big upper lips signified stupidity

•Fat nose like of the pig indicated stupidity
•Pointed nose like of the dog signified choleric
temperament
•Lion-like nose implied generosity
•Persons with noses like the hawk or eagle were
magnanimous
•Fine hair like of the rabbit and sheep indicated
timidity
•Rough hair like of the lion or boar implied
courage
•Fat ears like of the Ox implied laziness
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

Phrenology/Craniology

-the study of the person`s personality traits or

character based on skull formation.
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

Kretschmer`s Body Physiques

- assumed that there is a link between the individual`s
physical makeup and his personality and that certain
body builds correspond to certain temperaments.

ERNST KRETSCHMER
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
Four Types of Body Physiques
1. Asthenic – are those persons who are thin, with narrow shoulders, flat chest, loose
skin, and long limbs. Asthenic are shy, timid, introvert, with serious personality but with
fondness in reading and studying. To Kretschmer, asthenic is likely to commit petty theft
and fraud.

2. Athletic – people under this category are muscular and with strong development of
the skeleton. The personality of being aggressive is linked to this type. Athletic people are
prone to commit violence compared to asthenic.

3. Pyknic – are those that are fat with rounded bodies with fleshy arms and legs. This
category is more likely to commit fraud and deception and sometimes violence. On the
temperament side, pyknic people are into mood swings, who sometimes are happy and at
other times are irritable and depressed.

4. Dysplastic type (mixed type) – people who have no desired body physiques belong
to this category. Kretschmer argued that individuals under this type are prone to commit
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

Somatotypes

• Popularized by William Sheldon, an American

psychologist who made his own version of body types
which he termed somatoypes.
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
Somatotype:

1. Ectomorph – this is similar to Kretschmer`s asthenic body physique.

Similarly, ectomorphs are thin or slender. Sheldon associated this type to
cerebrotonic temperament with characters of being introverted,
insomniac, full of complaints, sensitivity to noise and distractions, and self
conscious.

2. Endomorph – this is similar to Kretschmer`s pyknic body physique.

Endomorphs are those whose body is fat, soft, and round. It is attributed to
a viscerotonic type of temperament – extroverted, jolly, relaxed, lazy,
comfortable, and sociable.

3. Mesomorph – the athlectic type in Kretschmer`s classification.

Mesomorphs are characterized by dominated muscles, large hands and
wrists, and heavy chest. Mesomorphs are somotonic having the characters
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
Karyotype Studies: The “Supermale”

- this theory associated aggressive behavior and crime to

abnormality in the chromosomal pattern of a person. The
normal chromosome pair for male is XY; female on the other
hand follows an XX pattern.
- some males have an XYY pattern and some females have an
XXX structure. This theory suggests that additional maleness
brought by the extra “Y” chromosome (which makes
“supermales”) provides higher inclination for a person to
commit heinous, violent crimes.
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
Family Studies

1. Juke Family Tree

•spearheaded by Richard L. Dugdale, a sociologist and a prison
reformer.
•Dugdale started his study on the five daughters of Max Juke,
Ada, Bell, Clara, Delia, and Effie.
•Ada Juke who is better known to the public as “Margaret, the
mother of criminals”
•after tracing the family had out 709 descendants, 181 were
prostitutes, 142 paupers and 106 illegitimate births.
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
2. Kalikak Family Tree
- By Henry H. Goddard, “Kalikak” from the Greek word “kallos” which
means “beauty or good” and “kakos” which means “bad”.
- Involved Martin Kalikak, a revolutionary war soldier. Martin had two
separate relationships which in turned represents the “good offspring” and
the “bad offspring”. These relationships are the following:
Quaker (member of a Christian group known as Society of Friends)- girl
whom he married and bore seven children. Upon tracing, descendants
considered to be the “good side” of the family tree.
feebleminded woman - resulted to an illegitimate son named Martin
Kalikak Junior who later rose into adulthood, married and fathered seven
children. Goddard upon tracing the “bad side” of the family tree found out
descendants who were prostitutes, thieves, brothel owners, alcoholics, and
licentious individuals.
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
Family Studies
3. Jonathan Edwards Family Tree
• was an exemplar of an ideal family structure. Jonathan who
was married to Sara in 1727, was a famous Puritan preacher
and once a president in Princeton College.
• this family tree was traced by A.E. Winship.
• none of the descendants was found to be criminal. Rather,
many became judges, physicians, college presidents, mayors,
vice president, senators, professors, and other vital positions in
the society.
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
Twin studies
•This study was centered on studying twin pairs, investigating
their distinct and similar behavioral patterns. The theoretical
assumption was, if genes are inherited, then twins would likely
exhibit the same set of behaviors. With this, researchers
grouped twin pairs into two:
•MZ – refers to identical twins.
•DZ – refers to fraternal twins who are not identical, twins who
share only half of their genes.

•52 percent similarity in behavioral patterns among MZ

(identical twins) compared to DZ (fraternal twins) which has 22
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
Adoption Studies

•This study examined the life and behavior of the adopted

children and correlated it with the criminal behaviors of the
parents who adopted them and with their biological parents
who send them away.

•Adoption studies argued that criminal behaviors exhibited

by adopted children were hereditary in nature.
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
Hormones and Behavior
•Hormones are chemical messengers inside the body of a person. It affects
psychological and physiological human aspects including behavior,
fertility, etc.

•Persons with high level of testosterone are prone in committing domestic

abuse, verbal and physical domestic violence.

•Prisoners who were violent during their adolescence were found to have
higher testosterone levels than those who were non- aggressive ones.

•Higher quantity of testosterone is released during adolescent period.

Increase of testosterone is correlated with substance use, delinquency, as
well as conflicts with authority figures, and promiscuity (indiscriminate
sexual relation).
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
Food and Behavior

•poor diet is correlated with frustration, aggression, defiance,

lack of discipline, poor self esteem, and depression.

•Exercise entwined with improved diet and proper education

could result to decrease chances in antisocial behavioral
problems in later adolescence or adulthood.

•increased behavior problems when a person is exposed to

synthetic colorings and flavorings, preservatives, cow’s milk,
and certain chemicals.
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
Pregnancy, During and After Childbirth, and Behavior
• Children delivered from the mother`s womb with high levels of birth complications were
more aggressive than those with low levels.

• Children born prematurely showed learning disabilities, school problems, and

impairment in attention, emotion, and language.

• Excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages of pregnant women may result to fetal

alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD), which may lead to mental complications which may
cause retardation in the mental aspect.

• Smoking during pregnancy may lead to conduct disorder in children between 16 and
18years old.

• Depression, anxiety, stressed, and having history of depression during pregnancy are
predictors of postpartum depression. This is a type of depression which occurs after
pregnancy characterize by the feeling of being hopeless, without self importance, and
sadness.
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
Premenstrual Syndrome and Behavior

• Prior to menstruation, fluctuations occur as

progesterone levels drop while the other hormones
increase.

• The abrupt change may lead to what is called

premenstrual syndrome.

• Common effects of premenstrual syndrome are

concentration problems, increased irritability, mood
swings including aggression and depression.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

These theories explain crime as caused by

mental, behavioral or emotional aspects.

Psychoanalytic Theory
•pioneered by Sigmund Freud.
•views deviant or antisocial behavior as a result of
underdeveloped or overdeveloped superego.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

Three Elements of Personality

1. Id – refers to the instincts, or pleasure-seeking drives or
impulses. This is present since birth. Id is the unconscious state
of the mind of a person.

2. Superego – refers to conscience. It sets the moral standard

in consonance with the norms of the society. It is developed at
the age of five.

3. Ego – refers to the self. Its function is to balance or to

mediate between the id and the superego in the context of
reality.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

Types of Personality Conflicts or Anxiety

1. Realistic anxiety – this refers to the feeling of fear towards certain

external object, situation, or action, that the society generally regard as a
threat or dangerous to the concerned person. It is what a person feels
when a criminal points the muzzle of his firearm towards him.

2. Moral anxiety – this is a type of anxiety produced by the tensions

between the ego and the superego. In certain times, the id provokes the
ego to resort in unacceptable behaviors causing the superego to regulate
the former.

3. Neurotic anxiety – this is produced by the conflict between the id and

the ego. This is felt when the impulses of the id overwhelms the ego.
Frustration displacement, losing your temper, and drinking alcohol, are few
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
Ego Defense Mechanisms

1. Repression – the most fundamental defense mechanism. It

is referred to as “motivated forgetting”.

2. Denial – this refers to the refusal on the person to accept the

reality.

3. Projection – in this defense mechanism, the ego attempts

to resolve the tension or discomfort of the individual by
attributing the undesirable thoughts, events, feelings, and
motives to another individual. It resembles with the act of
blaming only that in literatures, the former is the most widely
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
4. Regression - a defense mechanism of the ego in which the
person reverts or moves backward in the earlier stages of
development in order to cope with negative situations. Is a
return to immature behaviors.

5. Isolation or Intellectualization – this refers to the ego

defense mechanism which eliminates the feeling or emotion
associated with a threatening event, object, or person. The
strategy is to become emotionless to pursue normal
psychological function.
It involves separating emotions from a situation.

6. Sublimation – this is the most mature defense mechanism

which involves channeling the stress or pain through socially
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

7. Displacement – a defense mechanism which is the exact

opposite of sublimation. In here the person channels the pain in
a socially unacceptable way. Redirect negative emotions to less
threatening target.

8. Reaction Formation – this is often called “believing the

opposite”. A primitive version of sublimation, this ego defense
mechanism changes the anxiety-provoking or unacceptable
impulses into acceptable ones. However, unlike sublimation,
reaction formation, reverses the individual`s conscious
experience making him aware of the opposite feeling.
Expresses the opposite of true feelings.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

9. Rationalization – a defense mechanism where the

ego excuses an inappropriate behavior though a
gesture (often an explanation) that is more acceptable
than the real and unconscious motive. It creates
acceptable explanations for unacceptable behavior.

10. Introjection – an ego defense mechanism where

the individual imitates the characteristics of another to
gain acceptance. It involves adopting the
characteristics of another.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

Fixation
- refers to either inadequate or excessive pleasure, or to the
conflicts during the stages of psychosexual development in
which the target of the sexual energy remains attached to an
object associated with lower level of maturity.
- it is the state of being confined or being stuck in a certain
stage.

Reasons for being “fixated” (stuck) in a Stage

•Inadequate fulfillment of the development needs in a certain
stage which causes frustration
•Excessive fulfillment of development needs which causes
indulgence
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

Stages of Psychosexual Development

1. Oral Stage (birth to 2 years)- In this stage of psychosexual
development, the gratification of the infant focuses on the mouth. Oral
activities like eating, swallowing, biting and sucking give pleasure.

2. Anal Stage (2 to 4 years)- In this stage, the focus of gratification is

on the anal region which consists of the control and the release of feces.
The ability of the child to control and heed on parental instruction as to
bowel movement is the key in determining the personality styles of the
infant when reaching adulthood.

3. Phallic Stage (4 -5 years)- sexual attraction to the parent of opposite

sex occurs and that parent of the same sex is considered as rival or
competitor. Gender identity is learned by identifying and mimicking the
same sex parent.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

Oedipus Complex- a term used to describe to a boy`s feeling of jealousy

towards their father and the feeling of desire towards their mother.

Castration anxiety- a term used to describe the boy`s feeling of fear

towards their father. In here, the boy assumed that his father will take
revenge and punish him by castrating him.

Electra complex- a term used to describe girl`s desire of affection and

love for their dad. However, unlike boys, Freud (1905) argued that girls are
unable to experience castration anxiety.

In this stage, girls experienced what Freud called as “penis envy”.

Sigmund Freud believed that children do not recognize the external
anatomical differences between males and females prior to the phallic
phase.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

4. Latent (latency) Stage (6 years to puberty)- takes place when

children are at the ages of six to twelve years.
-the child realizes that desires and affections directed to the parent of
opposite sex (boy child to the mother, girl child to the father) are not
feasible.
- shifts his focus towards social skills such as recreation and sports and
becomes occupied with socializing with same-sex peers, refining roles, etc.

5. Genital Stage (puberty and up ) - commences when the child enters

the period of puberty – a stage where the little girl or boy transitioned into
adolescence becoming into a sexually matured and a reproductive ready
individual.
- an increase of sex hormones resulting to an increase of sexual desire
with the opposite sex.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

Self Control Theory

•also known as General Theory of Crime which was formulated
by Gottfredson and Hischi (1990).
•This theory argues that person with high level of self control are
less likely to commit crime while those who have inadequate
self control are more likely to engage in criminal acts.

Frustration – Aggression Theory

•also known as frustration – aggression hypothesis by Yale John
Dollard, Neal Miller, Leonard Doob, Orval Mowrer, and Robert
Sears
•a theory which blames aggressive behavior to events or
circumstances which cause frustration.